'>^** ^ THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY REFERENCE DEPARTMENT -i^ . to be ^Wl. %HiJ*^ ^^^ ^/l ,/ ». «r- Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2008 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation Iittp://www.arcliive.org/details/commerceofprair01greg \^ COMMERCE OF THE PRAffilES OR THE 25(ptiatf mill ^i! ^ S^mto jFf ®tr^5i(rtir, DITRINO EIOHT EXPEDITIONS ACROSS THE GREAT WESTERN PRAIRIES, AKD A RESIDENCE OV XKAIILY NINE YEARS w NORTHERN MEXICO. SUnstratcb raitl) SX\a\i5 rnxb ^ngranings. BY JOSIAH GREGG. IN TWO VOLUMESy^^\ V 'J^ ^''^^i\ j 7^ VOL. I. V ^ ^. -: FIFTH EDITION. ^ PHILADELPHIA: J. W. MOORE, 193 CHESTNUT STREET. 1851. \ Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1844. by J. W. MOORE. in the Clerk's office of the District Court for the !?outhern District of Nfw York. PREFACE. In adding another to the list of works which Lure al- ready been published, appearing to bear more or less directly upon the subject matter of these volumes, I am aware that my labors make their appeal to the public under serious disadvantages. Topics which have occupied the pens of Irving and Murray and Hoflfman, and more recently, of Kendall, the graphic historiographer of the " Texan Santa Fe Expedition," may fairly be supposed to have been so entirely exhausted, that the entrance of a new writer in the lists, whose name is wholly unknown to the republic of letters, and whose pretensions are so humble as mine, may be looked upon as an act of literary hardihood, for which there was neither occasion nor excuse. In view of this * foregone conclusion,' I trust I may be pardoned for prefacing ray literary offering with a few words in its justi- fication,— which will afford me an occasion to explain the circumstances that first led to my acquaintance with life upon the Prairies and in Northern Mexico. For some months preceding the year 1831, my health had been gradually declining under a complication of VI PREFACE. chronic diseases, which defied every plan of treatment that the sagacity and science of my medical friends could devise. This morbid condition of my system, which ori- ginated in the familiar miseries of dyspepsia and its kindred infirmities, had finally reduced me to such a state, that, for nearly a twelvemonth, I was not only disqualified for any systematic industry, but so debilitated as rarely to be able to extend my walks beyond the narrow precincts of my chamber. In this hopeless condition, my physicians ad- vised me to take a trip across the Prairies, and, in the change of air and habits which such an adventure would involve, to seek that health which their science had failed to bestow. I accepted their suggestion, and, without hesi- tation, proceeded at once to make the necessary preparations for joining one of those spring Caravans which were annu- ally starting from the United States, for Santa F^. The effects of this journey were in the first place to re-establish my health, and, in the second, to beget a pas- sion for Prairie life which I never expect to survive. At the conclusion of the season which followed my first trip, I became interested as a proprietor in the Santa Fe Trade, and continued to be so, to a greater or less extent, for the eight succeeding years. During the whole of the above periods I crossed the Prairies eight different times ; and, with the exception of the time thus spent in travelling to and fro, the greater part of the nine years of which I speak, were passed in Northern Mexico. Having been actively engaged and largely interested in the commerce of that country and across the Prairies, for so long a period, I feel that I have at least had oppor- PREFACE. VU tunities for observation, upon the subjects of which I have ventured to treat, superior to those enjoyed by any writ- ers who have preceded me. But not even an attempt has before been made to present any full account of the origin of the Santa Fe Trade and modes of conducting it ; nor of the early history and present condition of the people of New Mexico; nor of the Indian tribes by which the wild and unreclaimed regions of that department are inhabited. 1 think I may also assure my readers that most of the facts presented in my sketch of the natural history of the Prai- ries, and of the Indian tribes who inhabit them, are now published for the first time. As I have not sought to make a treatise upon these subjects, I have not felt compelled, for the purpose of giving my papers symmetry and com- pleteness, to enter to any extent upon grounds which have already been occupied by other travellers ; but have con- tented myself with presenting such matters and observa- tions as I thought least likely to have come before under the notice of my readers. I am perfectly sensible, however, that, in the selection of matter, and in the execution of my work, it is very far from being what it should be, and what, in more capable hands, it might have been. I only trust, that, with all its imperfections, it may be found to contain some new and not unimportant facts, which may be thought, in some measure, to justify my appearance for once in the capacity of a book- maker ; for which vocation, in all other respects, I am free to confess myself very poorly qualified. This work has been prepared chiefly from a journal which I have been in the habit of keeping from my youth PREFACE. upward, and in which I was careful to preserve memoran- da of my observations while engaged in the Santa F6 Trade, — though without the remotest intention of ever ap- propriating them to the present purpose. In addition, how- ever, I have embraced every opportunity of procuring au- thentic information through others, upon such matters as were beyond my own sphere of observation. From mate- rials thus collected 1 have received much assistance in the preparation of the chapters from the sixth to the fifteenth inclusive, of the first volume, which are chiefly devoted to the early liistory of New Mexico, and the manners, cus- toms and institutions of its people. For favors thus con- ferred, I beg in particular to make my acknowledgments to Elisha Stanley, Esq., and Doctors Samuel B. Hobbs and David Waldo, whose names have been long and fa- vorably associated with the Santa Fe Trade. Though myself cradled and educated upon the Indian border, and familiar with the Indian character from my infancy, I am yet greatly indebted, for information upon that subject, to many intelligent Indian traders, and others resident upon our border, with whose ample experience I have been frequently favored. Yet, while I recognize my indebtedness to others, I feel bound, in self-defence, to reclaim in a single case, at least, the waifs of my own pen, which have been dignified with a place in the pages of a cotemporary writer. During the years 1841 and 1842, I contributed a number of letters upon the history and condition of the Santa Fe Trade, etc., to the Galveston " Daily Advertiser" and the " Arkansas Intelligencer," undor the signatures of "J. G." and "G.," PREFACE IX portions of which I have had occasion to insert in the present volumes. In Captain Marryat's recent work, en- titled " Monsieur Violet," I was not a little annoyed (when I presume I ought to have been flattered) to find large portions of this correspondence copied, much of it verbatim, without the slightest intimation or acknowledg- ment whatever, of the source from whence they were pro- cured. The public are already so familiar with the long series of literary larcenies of which that famous work was the product, that I should not have presumed to empha- size my own grievance at all here, but that the appearance of the same material, frequently in the same words, in these volumes, might, unless accompanied by some explana- tion, expose me to a charge of plagiarism myself, among those who may never have seen my original letters, or who are not yet aware that " Monsieur Violet" was an offering which had evidently been intended for the altar of Mercury rather than of Minerva. In my historical sketches of New Mexico, it might have been naturally expected that some notice would be taken of the Texan Santa Fe Expedition of 1841, the events of which are so closely connected with the history of that country. I declined, nowever, to enter upon the topic ; for I considered that none who had seen Mr. KendalPs ac- count of that ill-fated enterprise, would have any induce- ment to consult these pages upon the subject ; and for those who had not, I felt sure the best thing I could do, was to direct their attention at once to its attractive pages. The maps which accompany the present work will be found, I believe, substantially correct ; or more so, at least, X PREFACE. than any others, of those regions, which have been pub- lished. They have been prepared, for the most part, from personal observations. Those portions of the country which I have not been able to observe myself, have chiefly been laid down from manuscript maps kindly furnished me by experienced and reliable traders and trappers, and also from the maps prepared under the supervision of United States surveyors. The arrangement I have adopted seems to require a word of explanation. That the reader may the better understand the frequent notices, in the course of my personal narrative, of the Santa Fe Trade, the first chapter has been devoted to the development of its early history. And, though the results of my observations in Northern Mexico and upon the Prairies, as well as on the border, are sometimes inter- spersed through the narrative, I have, to a great degree, digested and arranged them into distinct chapters, occupy- ing from the sixth to the fifteenth inclusive, of the first volume, and the seven last chapters, of the second. This plan was resorted to with a view of giving greater com- pactness to the work, and relieving the journal, as far as possible, from cumbrous details and needless repetitions. J.G. New York, June 12, 1844. CONTENTS OF VOL. I CHAPTER I. Pa«« Origin and progressive Development of the Santa Fe Trade — Captain Pike's Narrative — Pursley — La Lande — Expe- dition of McKnight and others — Glenn — Becknell — Coo- per— Sufferings of Captain Becknell and his Companions — First Introduction of wheeled Vehicles — Colonel Mar- maduke — Hostility of the Indians — Recriminations — In- dian Ethics — Increase of Outrages — Major Riley's Escort — Annoyed by the Indians — Government Protection — Composition of a Caravan, . . . 17 CHAPTER II. Head (Quarters of the Santa Fe Trade — Independence and its Locale — A Prairie Trip an excellent Remedy for chronic Diseases — Supplies for the Journey — Wagons, Mules and Oxen — Art of Loading Wagons — Romancing Propensity of Travellers — The Departure — Storms and Wagon-covers — duagmires — Tricks of marauding In- dians— Council Grove — Fancy versus Reality — Election- eering on the Prairies — The Organization — Amateur Travellers and Loafers — Duties of the Watch — Costumes and Equipment of the Party — Timbers for the Journey, 32 CHAPTER III. The ' Catch up ' — Breaking up of the Encampment — Per- versity of Mules — Under Way — The Diamond Spring — Eccentricities of Oxen — First Glance of the Antelope — Buffalo Herds and Prairie Novices — A John Gilpin Race — Culinary Preparations — A Buffalo Feast — Appetite of Xfi CONTENTS. Ptf* Prairie Travellers — Troubles in Fording Streams — Fresh Alarms and their Causes — A Wolfish Frolic — Arkansas River — Pleasing Scenery — Character of the Country — Ex- traordinary Surgical Operation — The ' Pawnee Rock ' — Salutary Effects of Alarms — New Order of March — Prai- rie Encampment and ' Upholstery' — Hoppling and Teth- ering of the ' Stock ' — Crossing the Arkansas — Great Bat- tle with Rattlesnakes — A Mustang Colt and a Mule Fracas — ' The Caches ' — Their Origin, and Signification of the Term, ..... 50 CHAPTER IV. A Desert Plain — Preparation for a ' Water-Scrape' — Acci- dent to a French Doctor — Upsetting of a Wagon and its Consequences —A Party of Sioux Warriors — The first real Alarm — Confusion in the Camp — Friendly Demon- strations of the Indians — The Pipe of Peace — Squaws and Papooses — An Extemporary Village — Lose our Track — Search after the Lost River — Horrible Prospective— The Cimarron Found at last — A Night of Alarms — In- dian Serenade and Thieving — Indian Diplomacy — Hail- stones and Hurricanes — Position of the Captain of a Caravan — His Troubles, his Powers and Want of Powers — More Indians — Hostile Encounter — Results of the Skir- mish— The ' Battle-Ground' — Col. Vizcarra and the Gros Ventres, ...... 70 CHAPTER V. A Beautiful Ravine — 'Runners' Starting for Santa F^ — Fourth of July on the Prairies — The Ciholero or Buffalo- hunter — Mournful News of Captain Sublette's Company — Murder of Captain Smith and another of the Party by the Indians — Carelessness and Risks of Hunters — Cap- lain Sublette's Peril — Character and Pursuits of the Ci- boleros — The Art of Curing Meat — Purity of the Atmos- phere— The 'Round Mound' — The Mirage or False Ponds — Philosophy thereof — Extensive and Interesting View — Exaggerated Accounts by Travellers of the Buf- falo of the Prairies — Their Decrease — A ' Stampede' — Wagon Repairing — Rio Colorado or Canadian River — Meeting between old Friends — Mexican Escort — Disor- ganizing of the Caravan — Dreadful Thunder-storm — First Symptoms of Civilization — San Miguel — Arrival at Santa Fe — Entry of the Caravan — First Hours of Recrea- tion— Interpreters and Custom-house Arrangements — A Glance at the Trade, etc.. .... 87 CONTENTS Xlii CHAPTER VI. Sketches of the Early History of Santa Fe — First Explora- tions— Why called New Mexico — Memorial of Oflaie — His Colony — Captain Ley va's prior Settlement — Singular Stipulations of Oilate — Incentives presented by the Crown to Colonizers— Enormities of Spanish Conquerors — Pro- gress of the new Colony — Cruel Labors of the Aborigi- nes in the Mines — Revolt of the Indians in 1680 — Mas- sacre of the Spaniaids — Santa Fe Besieged — Battles — Remaining Spanish Population finally evacuate the Pro- vince— Paso del Norte — luhuman Murder of a Spanish Priest — Final Recovery of the Country — Insurrection of 1837 — A Prophecy — Shocking Massacre of the Governor and other distinguished Characters — American Mer- chants, and Neglect of our Government — Governor Ar- mijo: his Intrigues and Success — Second Gathering of Insurgents and their final Defeat, . . . 115 CHAPTER VII. Greographical Position of New Mexico — Absence of naviga- ble Streams — The Rio del Norte — Romantic Chasm — Story of a sunken River — Mr. Stanley's Excursion to a famous Lake — Santa Fe and its Localities — El Valle de Taos and its Fertility — Soil of New Mexico — The firsi Settler at Taos and his Contract with the Indians — Salu- brity and Pleasantness of the Climate of New Mexico — Population — State of Agriculture — Staple Productions of the Country — Corn-fields and Fences — Irrigation and Acequias — Tortillas and Tortilleras — Atole, Frijoles and Chile — Singular Custom — Culinary and Table Atfairs — Flax and Potato indigenous — Tobacco and Puncke — Fruits — Peculiar Mode of cultivating the Grape — Forest Growths — PifLon and Mezquite — Mountain Cottonwood — Palmilla or Soap-plant — Pasturage, . . 137 CHAPTER VIIl. The Mines of New Mexico — Supposed Concealment of them by the Indians — Indian Superstition and Cozenage — Ru- ins of La Gran Quivira — Old Mines — Placeres or Mines of Gold Dust — Speculative Theories — Mode of Working the Placeres — Manners and Customs of the Miners — Ar- bitrary Restrictions of the Mexican Government upon Foreigners — Persecution of a Gachupin — Disastrous Ef- feet of official Interference upon the Mining Interest — Disregard of American Rights and of the U. States Gov- 2 XIV CONTENTS. Page ernmont — Gambucinos and their System — Gold found throughout New Mexico — Silver Mines — Copper, Zinc and Lead — Sali7ias or Salt Lakes — Sulphurous Springs — Gypsum, and Petrified Trees, . . . 162 CHAPTER IX. Indifference on the Subject of Horse-breeding — Caballos de Silla — Popularity and Usefulness of the Mule — Mode of harnessing and lading Mules for a Journey — ^rri^ros and their System — The Mulera or Bell-mare — Surprising Feats of the Muleteers and Vaqueros — The Lazo and its Uses — Ridiculous Usages of the Country in regard to the Ownership of Animals — Anecdote of a Mexican Colonel — The Burro or domestic Ass and its Virtues — Shepherds and their Habits — The Itinerant Herds of the Plains— Sagacity of the Shepherd's Dog — The Sheep Trade — De- s'truction of Cattle by the Indians — Philosophical Notions of the Marauders — Excellent Mutton — Goats and their Utility — Wild Animals and their Character — A * Bear Scrape ' — Wolves, Panthers, Wild Birds and Reptiles — The Honey-bee, etc., .... 178 CHAPTER X. Condition of the Arts and Sciences in New Mexico — Neg- lect of Education — Primary Schools — Geographical Ig- norance— Female Accomplishments — Imported Refine- ments— Peculiarities of Language, etc. — Condition of the Public Press — State of Medical Science — The Mechani- cal Arts— Carpentry and Cabinet Work — State of Archi- tecture— Dwelling Houses and their Peculiarities — Rustic Furniture — Curiously constructed Vehicles — Manufac- ture of Blankets — Other Fabrics — Want of Machinery, 197 CHAPTER XI. Style of Dress in New Mexico — Riding-dress of the Cabal- lero — Horse Trappings — The Rehozo — Passion for Jew- elry— Apparel of the Female Peasantry — * Wheeled Ta- rantulas ' — General Appearance of the People — Tawny Complexion — Singular Mode of Painting the Human Face — Striking Trails of Character — Alms-giving — Beg- gars and their Tricks — Wonderful Cure of Paralysis — Lack of Arms and Officers — Traits of Boldness among the Yeomanry — Politeness and Suavity of the Mexicans — Remarks of Mr. Poinsett — Peculiarities observed in Epistolary Intercourse — Salutations — lyi Siesta, . 211 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER XIL Pag« Government of New Mexico — The Administration of Jus- tice— Judicial Corruption — Prejudices against Americans — Partiality for the English — Anecdote of Governor Ar- mijo and a Trapper — Outrage upon an American Ph)'si- cian — Violence suffered by the American Consul and others — Arbitrary Impositions upon Foreigners — Contri- bucion de Guerra — The Alcaldes and their System — The Pueros — Mode of punishing Delinquents and Criminals — Mexican System of Slavery — Thieves and Thieveries Outrage upon an American Merchant — Gambling and Gambling-houses — Game of Monte — Anecdote of a Lady of Fashion — C^uza— Cockpits — Correr el gallo — El Co- leo — Fandangoes— Ci^«rri<(;5, . . . 225 CHAPTER Xni. Military Hierarchy of Mexico — Religious Superstitions — Legend of Neustra SefLora de Guadalupe — A profane Ver- sion of the Story — A curious Plan for manufacturing "Water — Saints and Images— Processions — How to make it Rain — The Sacred Host — Fanaticism and Murder — Honors paid to a Bishop — Servility to Priests — Attendance at Public Worship — New Mexicans in Church — The Ves- per Bells — Passion Week and the Ceremonies pertaining thereto — Ridiculous Penitencia — Whitewashing of Crimi- nals— Matrimonial Connexions and Mode of Contracting them — Restrictions upon Lovers— Onerous Fees paid for Marriages and Burials — Anecdote of a Ranchero — Ditto of a Servant and of a Widow, illustrative of Priestly Ex- tortion— Modes of Burial, and Burial Ground of the Heretics, ...... 245 CHAPTER XIV. The Pueblos — Their Character for Sobriety, Honesty, and In- dustry— Traditional descent from Montezuma — Their Languages — Former and present Population — The Pueblo of Pecos— Singular Habits of that ill-fated Tribe — Curi- ous Tradition — Montezuma and the Sun — Legend of a Serpent — Religion and government — Secret Council — Laws and Customs — Excellent Provisions against Demo- ralization— Primitive Pastimes of the Pueblos — Their Architecture — Singular Structures of Taos, and other novel Fortifications — Primitive state of the Arts among the Pueblos— Style of Dress, Weapons, etc.— Their Diet —The Guayave. ..... 267 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XV. The wild Tribes of New Mexico — Speculative Theories— Clavigero and the Aztcque,^ — Pueblo Bonito and other Ruins — Probable Relationship between the Azleques and Tribes of New Mexico — The several Nations of this Province — Navajoes and Azleques — Manufactures of the former — Their Agriculture, Religion, etc.— Mexican Cru- elty lo the Indians and its Consequences — Inroads of the Navajoes — Exploits of a Mexican Army — How to make a Hole in a powder-keg — The Apaches and their charac- ter— Their Food — Novel Mode of settling Disputes — Range of their marauding Excursions — Indian Traffic and imbecile Treaties — Devastation of the Country — Chi- huahua Rodomontades — Juan Jose, a celebrated Apache Chief, and his tragical End, etc. — Massacre of Ameri- cans in Retaliation — A tragical Episode — Proyecto de Guerra and a * gallant' Display — The Yutas and their Hostilities — A personal Adventure with them, but no Bloodshed — The Jicarillas. .... 282 CHAPTER XVI. Incidents of a Return Trip from Santa Fe — Calibre of our Party — Return Caravans — Remittances — Death of Mr. Langham — Burial in the Desert — A sudden Attack — Confusion in the Camp — The Pav/nees — A Wolfish Es- cort— Scarcity of BufTalo — Unprofitable Delusion — Arri- val— Table of Camping Sites and Distances — Condition of the Town of Independence — The Mormons — Their Dishonesty and Immorality — Their high-handed Meas- ures, and a Rising of the People — A fatal Skirmish — A chivalrous Parade of the Citizens — Expulsion of the Mor- mons— The Meteoric Shower, and Superstition, etc. — Wanderings and Improprieties of the ' Latter-day Saints* — Gov. Boggs' Recipe — The City of Nauvoo — Coniem plated Retribution of the Mormons. . . 305 COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES. CHAPTER I. Origin and progressive Development of the Santa Fe Trade — Captain Pike's Narrative — Pursley — La Lande — Expedi- tion of McKnight and others — Glenn — Becknell — Cooper — Sufferings of Captain Becknell and his Companions — First Introduction of wheeled Vehicles — Colonel Marma- duke — Hostility of the Indians — Recriminations — Indian Ethics — Increase of Outrages — Major Riley's Escort — An- noyed by the Indians — Government Protection — Composi- tion of a Caravan. The overland trade between the United States and the northern provinces of Mexico, seems to have had no very definite origin ; having been rather the result of accident than of any organized plan of commercial estabhshment. For a number of years its importance attracted no attention whatever. From Captain Pike's narrative we learn, that one James Pursley, after much wandering over the Avild and then unexplored regions west of the Mississippi, finally fell in Avith some Indians on the Platte river, near its source in the Rocky Mountains ; and obtain- ing information from them respecting the set 2* 18 ORIGIN OF THE dements of New Mexico, he set out in compa- ny Avith a party of these savages, and descend- ed, in 1805, to Santa Fo, where he remained for several years — perhaps till his death. It does not appear, however, that he took Avith him any considerable amount of merchandise. Although Captain Pike speaks of Pursley as the first American that ever crossed the de- sert plains into the Spanish pro\inces, it is nevertheless related by the same writer, that, in consequence of information obtained by the trappers, through the Indians, relative to this isolated province, a merchant of Kaskaskia, named Morrison, had already dispatched, as early as 1804, a French Creole^ by the name of La Lande, up Platte river, with directions to push his way into Santa Fe, if the passage was at all practicable. The ingenious emissary was perfectly successful in his enterprise ; but the land and generous treatment of the na- tives overcame at once his patriotism and his probity. He neither returned to his employer nor accounted for the proceeds of his adven- ture. His expansive intellect readily conceiv- ed the advantages of setting up in business for himself upon this 'borrowed^ capital; which he accordingly did, and remained there, not only unmolested, but honored and es- teemed till his death, Avhich occurred some fifteen or twenty years afterward — leaving a large family, and sufficient property to entitle him to the fame of rico among his neigh- bors. The Santa Fe trade attracted verv httle no- SANTA FE TRADE 19 tice, however, until the return of Captain Pike,^ whose exciting descriptions of the new El Dorado spread hke wildfire throughout the western country. Li 1812, an expedition was fitted out under the auspices of Messrs. Mc- Knight, Beard, Chambers, and several others (in all about a dozen), who, following the di- rections of Captain Pike across the dreary western wilds, finally succeeded in reaching * This celebrated officer, who was afterwards promoted to the rank of General, and died in the achievement of the glorious vic- tory at York, Upper Canada, in 1813, was sent, in 1806, on an exploring expedition up the Arkansas, with instructions to pass to the sources of Red River, for which those of the Canadian were then mistaken. Captain Pike, however, even passed around the head of the latter; and, crossing the mountain with an almost in- credible degree of peril and suffering, he descended upon the Rio del Norte with his little party, then but fifteen in number. Believing himself now upon Red River, within the then assumed bounds of the United States, he erected a small fortification for his company, till the opening of the spring of 1807 should enable him to continue his descent to Natchitoches. As he was within the Mexican ter- ritory, however, and but sixty to eighty miles from the northern settlements, his position was soon discovered, and a force sent out to take him into Santa Fe, which, by a treacherous manoeuvre, w^as effected without opposition. The Spanish officer assured him that the Governor, learning he had missed his way, had sent animals and an escort to convey his men and baggage to a navigable point on Red River (Rio Colorado), and that his Excellency desired very much to see him at Santa Fe, v/hich might be taken on their -^vay. As soon, however, as the Governor had Captain Pike in his power, he sent him with his men to the Commandant General at Chihua- hua, where most of his papers were seized, and he and his party were sent under an escort, via San Antonio de Bexar, to the United States. . The narrative of Captain Pike gives a full account of this expe- dition, both previous and subsequent to its interruption by the S})a- niards ; but as this work is now rarely met with, the foregoing note may not be deemed altogether supererogatory. Many will believe and assert to the present day, however, that this expedition had some connectior. with the famous project of Aaron Burr ; yet the noble and patriotic character of the officer who conducted it, will not .permit us to countenance such an aspersion. 20 McKxMGHT AND COMRADES. Santa Fc in safety. But these new adventu- rers were destined to experience trials and disappointments of which they had formed no conception. Beheving that the declara- tion of Lidependence by Hidalgo, in 1810, had completely removed those injurious re- strictions wliich had hitherto rendered all foreign intercourse, except by special permis- sion from the Spanish Government, illegal, they were wholly unprepared to encounter the embarrassments with which despotism and tyranny invariably obstruct the path of the stranger. They were doubtless ignorant that the patriotic chief Hidalgo had already been arrested and executed, that the roy- ahsts had once more regained the ascend- ency, and that all foreigners, but particularly Americans, were now viewed with unusual suspicion. The result was that the luckless traders, immediately upon their arrival, were seized as spies, their goods and chattels con- fiscated, and themselves thrown into the calahozos of Chihuahua, where most of them were kept in rigorous confinement for the space of nme years ; when the repubhcan forces under Iturbide getting again in the ascendant, McKnight and his comrades were finally set at liberty. It is said that tvvo of the party contrived, early in 1821, to return to the United States in a canoe, which they succeeded in forcing down the Canadian fork of the Arkansas. The stories promulgated by these men soon induced others to launch into the same field of enter- CAPTAIN BEClCNELlL. 21 prise, among whom was a merchant of Oliio, named Glenn, who, at tlie time, had an In- dian trading-house near the mouth of tlie Verdigris river. Ha vuig taken the circuitous route up the Arkansas towards the mountains, this pioneer trader encountered a great deal of trouble and privation, but eventually reach- ed Santa Fe with liis httle caravan, before the close of 1821, in perfect safety. During the same year. Captain Becknell, of Missouri, with four trusty companions, went out to Santa Fe by the far western prairie route. This intrepid httle band started from the vicinity of Frankhn,- with the origi- nal purpose of trading with the latan or Co- manche Indians; but havmg fallen in acci- dentally with a party of Mexican rangers, when near the Moimtains, they were easily prevailed upon to accompany them to tlie new emporium, where, notwithstanding the tiifling amount of merchandise they were possessed of, they realized a very handsome profit. The fact is, that, up to this date New Mexico had derived all her supphes from the Internal Proi^nces by the way of Vera Cruz ; but at sucn exorbitant rates, that com- mon calicoes, and even bleached and brown domestic goods, sold as high as two and three dollars per vara (or Spanish yard of thirty- three inches). Becknell returned to the United States alone the succeeding winter, leaving the rest of his company at Santa Fe. The favorable reports brought by the enter- prising Captain, stimulated others to embark 22 COLONEL COOPER. in the trade ; and early in the following May, Colonel Cooper and sons, from the same neighborhood, accompanied by several others (their whole number about fifteen), set out with four or five thousand dollars' worth of goods, which they transported upon pack- horses. They steered directly for Taos, where they arrived \^dthout any remarkable occurrence. The next effort of Captain Bccknell was attended with very different success. With a company amounting to near thirty men, and perhaps five thousand dollars' worth of goods of various descriptions, he started from Mis- souri, about a month after Colonel Cooper. Being an excellent woodsman, and anxious to avoid the circuitous route of the Upper Arkansas country, he resolved this time, after having reached that point on the Arkansas river since known as the ' Caches,* to steer more directly for Santa Fe, entertaining httle or no suspicion of the terrible trials Avhich awaited him across the pathless desert. With no other guide but the starry heavens, and, it may be, a pocket-compass^^ie party embark- ed upon the arid plains which extended far and wide before them to tlie Cimarron river. The adventurous band pursued then for- ward course Avithout being able to procure any water, except from the scanty supply they carried in their canteens. As this source of rehef was completely exhausted after two days' march, the sufferings of both men and beasts had driven them ahnost to distraction. THRILLING INCIDENT. 23 The forlorn band were at last reduced to the cruel necessity of killing their dogs, and cut- ting otr the ears of their mules, in the vain hope of assuaging their burning thirst with the hot blood. Tliis only served to irritate the parched palates, and madden the senses of the sufferers. Frantic w^ith despair, in prospect of the horrible death which now stared them in the face, they scattered in every direction in search of that element which they had left behind them in such abundance, but without success. Frequently led astray by the deceptive glimmer of the mirage, or false ponds, as those treacherous oases of the desert are call- ed, and not suspecting (as was really the case) that they had already arrived near the banks of the Cimarron, they resolved to retrace their steps to the Arkansas. But they now were no longer equal to the task, and would undoubt- edly have perished in those arid regions, had not a buffalo, fresh from the river's side, and with a stomach distended with water, been discovered by some of the party, just as the last rays of hope were receding from their vision. The hapless intruder was immedi- ately dispatched, and an invigorating draught procured from its stomach, I have since heard one of the parties to that expedition declare, that nothing ever passed his hps which gave him such exquisite dehght as his first draught of that filthy beverage. This providential rehef enabled some of the strongest men of the party to reach the 24 THE FIRST WAGONS. river, where they filled their canteens, and then hurried back to the assistance of their comrades, many of whom they found pros- trate on the ground, and incapable of further exertion. By degrees, however, they were all enabled to resume their journey ; and fol- lowing the course of the Arkansas for several days, thereby avoiding the arid regions which had occasioned them so much suffering, they succeeded in reacliing Taos (sixty or seventy miles north of Santa Fe) without further difficulty. Although travellers have since suffered excessively with thirst upon the same desert, yet, having become better ac- quainted with the topography of the country, no other equally thrilling incidents have sub- sequently transpired. It is from this period — the year 1822 — that the virtual commencement of the Santa Fe Trade may be dated. The next remarkable era in its liistory is the first attempt to intro- duce wagons in these expeditions. Tliis was made in 1824 by a company of traders, about eighty in number, among whom were several gentlemen of inteUigence from Missouri, who contributed, 'by their superior skill and un- daunted energy, to render the enterprise com- pletely successful. A portion of this company employed pack-mules : among the rest were owned twenty-five wheeled vehicles, of which one or two were stout road- wagons, two Avere carts, and the rest dearborn carriages — the whole conveying some $25,000 or $30,000 worth of merchandise. Colonel Marmaduke, EVENTFUL EKA. 26 the present Governor of the State of IMissouri, having formed one of the party, has been pleased to place liis diary of that eventful journey at my disposal; but want of space necessarily compels me to pass over the many interesting and exciting incidents which it contains. Suffice it to say that tlie caravan reached Santa Fe with much less difficulty than must have been anticipated from a first experiment with wheeled vehicles. The route, indeed, appears to liaA^e presented fewer obstacles than any ordinary road of equal .ength in the United States. It was not until several years after this ex- periment, however, that adventurers Avith large capital began seriously to embark in the Santa Fe trade. The early traders having but seldom experienced any molestations from the Indians, generally crossed the plains in detached bands, each individual rarely carrying more than two or three hundred dol- lars' worth of stock. This peaceful season, however, did not last very long; and it is greatly to be feared that the traders were n.ot always innocent of ha^dng instigated the savage hostihties that ensued in after years. Many seemed to forget the wholesome pre- cept, that they should not be savages them- selves because they dealt with savages. In- stead of cultivating friendly feehngs with those few who remained peaceful and honest, there was an occasional one always disposed to kill, even in cold blood, every Indian that fell into their power, merely because some of 3 26 TRICKS OF THE SAVAGES the tribe had committed some outrage either against themselves or their friends. Since the commencement of this ti'ade, re- turning parties have performed the homeward journey across the plains with the proceeds of their enterprise, partly in specie, and partly in furs, buffalo rugs and animals. Occasionally, these straggling bands would be set upon by marauding Indians, but if well armed and of resolute spirit, they found very httle difficulty in persuading the savages to let them pass unmolested ; for, as ]Mr. Storrs very justly re- marks, in his representation presented by Colonel Benton, in 1825, to the United States Senate, the Indians are always willing to compromise when they find that they cannot rob "without losing the hves of their warri- ors, which they hardly ever risk, unless for revenge or in open warfare." The case was very different with those who through carelessness or recklessness ventured upon the wild prairies without a sufficient supply of arms. A story is told of a small band of twelve men, who, while encamped on the Cimarron river, in 1826, with but four serviceable guns between them, were visited by a party of Indians (beUeved to be Arrapa- hoes), who made at first strong demonstrations of friendship and good will. Observing the defenceless condition of the traders, they went away, but soon returned about thirty strong, each provided with a lazOj and all on foot. The chief then began by informing the Americans that liis men were tired of walk- ing, and must have horses. Thinking it folly TWO TRADERS KILLED. 27 to offer any resistance, the terrified traders told them if one animal apiece would satisfy them, to go and catch them. This they soon did ; but finding their requests so easily complied with, the Indians held a httle parley together, which resulted in a new demand for more — they must now have two apiece. " Well, catch them !" was the acquiescent reply of the unfortunate band — upon which the savages mounted those they had ah'eady secured, and, swinging their lazos over their heads, plunged among tlie stock with a furious yell, and drove ofi' the entire caballada of near five hun- dred head of horses, mules and asses. The fall of 1828 proved still more fatal to the traders on their homeward trip ; for by this time the Indians had learned to form a cor- rect estimate of the stock with which the re- turn companies were generally provided. Two young men named McNees and Monroe, having carelessly lain down to sleep on the banks of a stream, since known as McNees's creek, were barbarously shot, with their own guns, as it was supposed, in very sight of the caravan. When their comrades came up, they found McNees hfeless, and the other almost exphing. In this state the latter was carried nearly forty miles to the Cimarron river, where he died, and was buried according to the custom of the Prairies.^ * ITiese funerals are usually performed in a very summary manner. A grave is dug in a convenient spot, and the corpse, with no other shroud than its own clothes, and only a blanket for a coffin, is consigned to the earth. The grave is then usually filled up with stones or poles, as a safe-guard against the voracima wolves of the prairies. 28 MASSACRE OF INDIANS. Just as the funeral ceremonies were about to be concluded, six or seven Indians appear- ed on the opposite side of the Cimarron. Some of the party proposed inciting them to a parley, while the rest, burning for revenge, evinced a desire to fire upon them at once. It is more than probable, however, that the Indians were not only innocent but ignorant of the outrage that had been committed, or they would hardly have ventured to approach the caravan. Being quick of perception, they very soon saw the belligerent attitude assum- ed by some of the company, and therefore wheeled round and attempted to escape. One shot was fired, which v/ounded a horse and brought the Indian to the ground, when he was mstantly riddled with balls ! Almost simultaneously another discharge of several guns followed, by Avhich all the rest were either killed or mortally wounded, except one, who escaped to bear to his tribe the news of their dreadful catastrophe ! These wanton cruelties had a most disas- trous eftect upon the prospects of the trade ; for the exasperated children of the desert be- came more and more hostile to the 'pale faces,' against whom they continued to wage a cruel war for many successive years. In fact, this same party suffered veiy severely a few days afterwards. TheyAvere pursued by the en- raged comrades of the slain savages to the Arkansas river, where they were robbed of nearly a thousand head of mules and horses. But the Inchans were not yet satisfied. Hav- WHuLESALH ROBBERIES. 29 ing beset a company of about twenty men, who followed shortly after, they killed one of tlieir number, and subsequently took from them all tlie anhnals they had in their possession. The unfortunate band were now not only compelled to advance on foot, but were even constrained to carry nearly a thousand dollars each upon their backs to the Arkansas river, where it was cached (concealed in tlie ^ound) till a conveyance was procur- ed to transfer it to the United States. Such repeated and daring outrages induced tlie traders to petition the Federal Govern- ment for an escort of United States troops. The request having been granted, Major Riley, with three companies of infantry and one of riflemen, was ordered to accompany the cara- van which left in the spring of 1829. The escort stopped at Chouteau's Igland, on the Arkansas river, and the traders thence pursued their journey through the sand-hills beyond. They had hardly advanced six or seven miles, when a starthng incident occur- red which made them wish once more for the company of the gallant Major and his weU- disciphned troops. A vanguard of three men, riding a few hundred yards ahead, had just dismounted for the purpose of satisfying their thirst, when a band of Kiawas, one of the most savage tribes that infest the western prairies, rushed upon them from the immense liillocks of sand which lay scattered in all di- rections. The three men sprang upon their animals, but two only who had horses were 3* 30 MAJOR RILEY. enabled to make their escape to the wagons ; the tliird, a IVIr. Lamme, who was unfortu- nately mounted upon a mule, was overtaken, slain and scalped before any one could come to his assistance. Somewhat alarmed at the boldness of the Lidians, the traders dispatch- ed an express to Major Riley, who immedi-^ ately ordered his tents to be struck ; and such was the rapidity of his movements, that when he appeared before the anxious caravan every one was lost in astonishment. The reinforce- ment having arrived in the night, the enemy could have obtained no knowledge of the fact, and would no doubt have renewed the attack in the morning, when they would have received a wholesome lesson from the troops, had not the i-eveille been sounded through mis- take, at which they precipitately retreated. The escorjt now continued Avith the company as far as Sand creek, when, perceiving no fur- ther signs of danger, they returned to the Ar- kansas, to await the return of the caravan in the ensuing fall. The position of Major Riley on the Arkan- sas was one of serious and continual danger. Scarce a day passed without his being sub- jected to some new annoyance from preda- . tory Indians. The latter appeared, mdeed, resolved to check all further concourse of the whites upon the Prairies ; and fearful of the terrible extremes to which their excesses might be carried, the traders contmued to unite in single caravans during many years afterwards, for ^he sake of mutual protection. SUBSEQUENT ESCORTS. 31 This escort under Major Riley, and one com- posed of about sixty dragoons, commanded by Captain Wharton, in 1834, constituted the only government protection ever aflbrded to the Santa Fe trade, until 1848, when large escorts under Captain Cook accompanied two diffe- rent caravans as far as the Arkansas river. Of the composition and organization of these trading caravans, I shall take occasion to speak, from my own experience, in the fol- lowing chapters. CHAPTER II Head Cluarters of the Santa Fe Trade— Independence and its Locale — A Prairie Trip an excellent Remedy for Chronic Diseases — Supplies for the Journey — Wagons, Mules and Oxen — Art of Loading Wagons — Romancing Propensity of Travellers — The Departure — Storms and Wagon-covers — Cluagmires — Tricks of marauding Indians — Council Grove — Fancy versus Reality — Electioneering on the Prairies — The Organization — Amateur Travellers and Loafers — Duties of the Watch — Costumes and Equipment of the Party — Timbers for the Journey. People who reside at a distance, and espe- cially at the North, have generally considered St Louis as the emporium of the Santa Fe Trade ; but that city, in truth, has never been a place of rendezvous, nor even of outfit, ex- cept for a small portion of the traders who have started from its immediate vicinit}^ The town of FrankUn on the Missouri river, over a hundred and fifty miles further to the west- ward, seems truly to have been the cradle of our trade ; and, in conjunction with several neighboring towns, continued for many years to furnish the greater number of these adven- turous traders. Even subsequently to 1831, many wagons have been fitted out and start- ed from this interior section. But as the navi- TOWN OF INDEPENDENCE. 33 gation of the Missouri river liad considerably advanced towards the year 1831, and the ad- vantages of some point of debarkation nearer the western frontier were very evident, where- by upwards of a hundred miles of trouble- some land -carriage, over unimproved and often miry roads, might be avoided, the new town of Independence, but twelve miles from the Indian border and two or three south of the IVIissouri river, being the most eligible point, soon began to take the lead as a place of debarkation, outfit and departure, wliich, in spite of all opposition, it has ever since main- tained. It is to this beautiful spot, aheady grown up to be a thriving town, that the prairie adventurer, whether in search of wealth, health or amusement, is latterly in the habit of repairing, about the first of May, as the caravans usually set out some time during that month. Here they purchase their provisions for the road, and many of their mules, oxen, and even some of then* wagons — in short, load aU their vehicles, and make their final preparations for a long journey across the prauie wilderness. As Independence is a point of convenient access (the Missouri river being navigable at all times from March till November), it has become the general 'port of embarkation ' for every part of the great western and northern 'prairie ocean.^ Besides the Santa Fe cara- vans, most of the Rocky Mountain traders and trappers, as well as emigrants to Oregon, take this town in their route. Daring the 34 VALETUDINARIANS. season of departure, therefore, it is a place of much bustle and active business. Among the concourse of travellers at this * starting point,' besides traders and tourists, a number of pale-faced invahds are generally to be met with. The Prairies have, in fact, become very celebrated for their sanative effects — more justly so, no doubt, than the most fashionable watering-places of the North. Most chronic diseases, particularly liver com- plaints, dyspepsias, and similar affections, are often radically cured ; owing, no doubt, to the peculiarities of diet, and the regular exercise incident to prairie life, as well as to the purity of the atmosphere of those elevated unem- barrassed regions. An invahd myself, I can ansAver for the efficacy of the remedy, at least in my own case. Though, hke other valetudi- narians, I was disposed to provide an ample supply of such commodities as I deemed ne- cessary for my comfort and health, I was not long upon the prairies before I discovered that most of such extra preparations were unne- cessary, or at least quite dispensable. A few knick-knacks, as a httle tea, rice, fruits, crack- ers, etc., suffice very Avell for the first fortnight, after wliich the invalid is generally able to take the fare of the hunter and teamster. Though I set out myself in a carriage, be- fore the close of the first week I saddled my pony; and when we reached the bufliilo range, I was not only as eager for the chase as the sturdiest of my companions, but I enjoy- ed far more exquisitely my share of the buf- SUPPLIES FOR THE ROAD. 35 falo, than all the deUcacies which were ever de- vised to provoke the most fastidious appetite. The ordinary suppUes for each man's con- sumption during the journey, are about fifty pounds of flour, as many more of bacon, ten of coffee and twenty of sugar, and a little salt. Beans, crackers, and trifles of that de- scription, are comfortable appendages, but be- ing looked upon as dispenMih/e luxuries, are seldom to be Ibund in any of the stores on the road. The buflalo is chiefly depended upon for fresh meat, and great is the joy of the tra- veller when that noble animal first appears in sight. The wagons now most in use upon the Prairies are manufactured in Pittsburg ; and are usually drawn by eight miiles or the same number of oxen. Of late years, however, I have seen much larger vehicles employed, with ten or twelve mules harnessed to each, and a cargo of goods of about five thousand pounds in weight. At an early period the horse was more frequently in use, as mules were not found in great abundance ; but as soon as the means for procuring these animals increased, the horse was gi'adu- ally and finally discarded, except occasion- ally for riding and the chase. Oxen having been employed by Major Riley for the baggage wagons of the escort which was furnished the caravan of 1829, they were found, to the surprise of the traders, to perform almost equal to mules. Since that time, upon an average about half of the wa- 36 OXEN AGAINST MULES. gons ill these expeditions have been drawn by oxen. They possess many advantages, such as pulhng heavier loads than the same number of mules, particularly tln-ough nmddy or sandy places ; but they generally faU off in strength as the prauie grass becomes drier and shorter, and often arrive at then destination in a most shocking phght. In tliis condition I have seen them sacrificed at Santa Fe for ten dollars the pair; though in more favorable seasons, they sometimes remain strong enough to be driven back to the United States the same fall. Therefore, although the original cost of a team of mules is much greater, the loss ultimately sustained by them is usually less, — to say nothing of the comfort of being able to travel faster and more at ease. The inferiority of oxen as regards endurance is partially owing to the tenderness of their feet ; for there are very few among the thou- sands who have travelled on the Prairies that ever knew how to shoe them properly. Many have resorted to the curious expedient of shoeing their animals with ' moccasins' made of raw buffalo-skin, which does remarkably well as long as the weather remains dry ; but when wet, they are soon worn through. Even mules, for the most part, perform the entire trip wiihout being shod at all ; though the hoofs often become very smooth, which frequently renders all their movements on the dry grassy surface nearly as laborious as if they were treading on ice. The supplies being at length procured, and LOADING AND TRAINING. 37 all necessary preliminaries systematically gone through, the trader begins the difficult task of loading liis wagons. Those who under- stand their business, take every precaution so to stow away their packages that no jolting on the road can afterwards disturb the order in wliich they had been disposed. The ingenuity displayed on these occasions has frequently been such, that after a tedious journey of eight hundred miles, the goods have been found to have sustained much less injury, than they would have experienced on a turnpike-road, or from the ordinary hand- hng of property upon our western steam-boats. The next great difficulty the traders have to encounter is in training those anmials that have never before been worked, which is fre- quently attended by an immensity of trouble. There is nothing, however, in the mode of harnessing and conducting teams in pranie travelhng, which differs materially from that practised on the pubhc highways throughout the States, — the representations of certain travellers to the contrary, notwithstanding. From the amusing descriptions which are sometimes given by this class of writers, one would be apt to suppose that they had never seen a wagon or a team of mules before, or that they had just emerged for the first time from the purlieus of a large city. The pro- pensity evinced by these writers for giving an air of romance to ever}^thing they have either seen or heard, would seem to imply a conviction on their part, that no statement of 4 38 THE DEPARTURE. unvarnished facts can ever be stamped with the seal of the world's approbation — that a work, in order to prove permanently attrac- tive, should teem with absurdities and abound in exaggerated details. How far such an assumption would be correct, I shall not pause to inquire. At last all are fairly launched upon the broad prairie — the miseries of preparation are over — the thousand anxieties occasioned by wearisome consultations and delays are felt no more. The charioteer, as he smacks his whip, feels a bounding elasticity of soul within him, which he finds it impossible to restrain ; — even the mules prick up their ears with a pecuharly conceited air, as if in anticipation of that change of scene which will presently follow. Harmony and good feehng prevail everywhere. The hilarious song, the bon mot and the witty repartee^ go round in quick succession ; and before people have had leisure to take cognizance of the fact, the lively village of Independence, with its mul- titude of associations, is aheady lost to the eye. It was on the 15th of May, 1831, and one of the brightest and most lovely of all tlie days in the calendar, that our httle party set out from Independence. The general ren- dezvous at Council Grove was our immediate destination. It is usual for the traders to travel thus far in detached parties, and to as- semble there for the purpose of entering into some kuid of organization, for mutual securi- AN OMINOUS FORETASTE. 39 ty and defence during the remainder of the journey. It was from thence that the for- mation of the Caravan was to be dated, and the chief interest of our journey to com- mence : therefore, to tliis pomt we all looked forward Avith great anxiety. The interme- diate travel was marked by very few events of any interest As the wagons had gone before us, and we were riding in a hght car- riage, we were able to reach the Hound Grove, about thirty-five miles distant, on the first day, where we joined the rear diAision of the caravan, comprismg about thirty wagons. On the following day we had a foretaste of those protracted, drizzling spells of rain, which, at this season of the year, so much infest the frontier prairies. It began sprinkUng about dark, and continued pouring without let or hmderance for forty-eight hours in succession ; and as the rain was accompanied by a heavy north-wester, and our camp was pitched in the open prairie, without a stick of available timber within a mile of us, it must be allowed that the whole formed a prelude anytliing but flattering to valetudinarians. For my own part, finding the dearborn carriage in which I had a berth not exactly water-proof, I rolled myself in a blanket and lay snugly coiled upon a tier of boxes and bales, under cover of a wagon, and thus managed to escape a very severe drenching. It may be proper to observe here, for the benefit of future travellers, that in order to make a secure shelter for the cargo, against 40 STRAYING OF CATTLE. the inclemencies of the weather, there should be spread upon each wagon a pah of stout Osnaburg sheets, with one of sufficient width to reach the bottom of the body on each side, so as to protect the goods from driving rams. By omitting tliis important precaution many packages of merchandise have been seriously injured. Some have preferred lining the exte- rior of the wagon-body by tacking a simple strip of sheeting all around it. On the outward trips especially, a pair of Mackinaw blankets can be advantageously spread betwixt the two sheets, which effectually secures the roof agauist the worst of storms. Tliis contri- vance has also the merit of turnmg the blan- kets into a profitable item of trade, by enabling the owners to evade the custom-house officers, who would otherwise seize them as contra- band articles. The mischief of the storm did not exliaust itself, however, upon our persons. The loose animals sought shelter in the groves at a con- siderable distance from the encampment, and the wagoners being loth to turn out in search of them during the rain, not a few of course, when apphed for, were missing. Tliis, how- ever, is no unconnnon occurrence. Travellers generally experience far more annoyance from the straying of cattle during the first hundred miles, than at any time afterwards ; because, apprehending no danger from the wild Indians (who rarely approach witliin two hundred miles of the border), tliey seldom Keep any watch, although that is the v^.— THE NARROWS. 41 time when a cattle-guard is most needed. It is only after some weeks' travel that the ani- mals begui to feel attached to the caravan, which they then consider about as much their home as the stock-yard of a dairy farm. After leaving this spot the troubles and vicissitudes of our journey began in good earnest ; for on reacliing the narrow ridge which separates the Osage and Kansas waters (known as 'the Narrows'), we en- countered a region of very troublesome quag- mires. On such occasions it is quite com- mon for a wagon to sink to the hubs in mud, while the surface of the soil all around would appear perfectly dry and smooth. To extri- cate each other's wagons we had frequently to employ double and triple teams, with ' all hands to the wheels' in addition — often led by the proprietors themselves up to the waist in mud and water. Three or four days after tliis, and while crossing the head branches of the Osage river, we experienced a momentary alarm. Con- spicuously elevated upon a rod by the road- side, we found a paper purporting to have been written by the Kansas agent, stating that a band of Pawnees were said to be lurking in the vicinity ! The first excitement over, however, the majority of our party came to the conclusion that it was either a hoax of some of the company in advance, or else a stratagem of the Kaws (or Kansas Indians), who, as well as the Osages, prowl about those prairies, and steal from the caravans, during 4* 42 THE RENDEZVOUS. the passage, when they entertain the slightest hope that their maraudings will be laid to others. They seldom venture further, how- ever, than to seize upon an occasional stray animal, which they frequently do with the view alone of obtaining a reward for return- ing it to its owner. As to the Pawnees, the most experienced traders were well aware that they had not been known to frequent those latitudes since the commencement of the Santa Fe trade. But what contributed as much as anything else to lull the fears of the timid, was an accession to our forces of seventeen wagons which we overtook the same evening. Early on the 26th of May we reached the long looked-for rendezvous of Council Grove, where we jomed the main body of the cara- van. Lest this imposing title suggest to the reader a snug and thriving village, it should be observed, that, on the day of our departure from Independence, we passed the last hu- man abode upon our route ; therefore, from the borders of Missouri to those of New Mex- ico not even an Lidian settlement greeted our eyes. This point is nearly a hundred and fifty miles from Independence, and consists of a continuous stripe of timber nearly half a mile in width, comprising the richest varieties of trees ; such as oak, walnut, ash, elm, hickory, etc., and extenduig all along the valleys of a small stream known as ' Council Grove creek,' the principal branch of the Neoslio COUNCIL GROVE. 43 river. Tliis stream is bordered by the most fertile bottoms and beautiful upland prairies, well adapted to cultivation : such indeed is the general character of the countr}^ from thence to Lidependence. All who have tra- versed these delightful regions, look forward with anxiety to the day when the Indian title to the land shall be extinguished, and flour- ishing 'white' settlements dispel the gloom which at present prevails over this uninhabit- ed region. Much of tliis prolific country now belongs to the Shawnees and other IncUans of the border, though some portion of it has never been allotted to any tribe. Frequent attempts have been made by travellers to invest the Council Grove with a romantic sort of interest, of which the follow- ing fabulous vagaiy, Avhich I find in a letter that went the rounds of our journals, is an amusing sample : " Here the Pawnee, Arapa- ho, Comanche, Loup and Eutaw Indians, all of whom were at war with each other, meet and smoke the pipe once a year." Now it is more than probable that not a soul of most of the tribes mentioned above ever saw the Council Grove. Whatever may be the inte- rest attached to this place, however, on ac- count of its historical or fanciful associations, one thing is very certain, — that the novice, even here, is sure to imagine himself in the midst of lurking savages. These visionary fears are always a source of no tittle merri- ment to the veteran of the field, who does not hesitate to travel, with a single wagon and a 44 ROAD COMMISSIONERS. comrade or two, or even alone, from the Ar- kansas river to Independence. The facts connected with the designation of tliis spot are simply these. Messrs. Reeves, Sibley and Mathers, having been commission- ed by the United States, in the year 1825, to mark a road from the confines of Missouri to Sante Fe, met on this spot with some bands of Osages, with Avhom they concluded a trea- ty, whereby the Indians agreed to allow aU citizens of the United States and Mexico to pass unmolested, and even to lend their aid to those engaged in the Santa Fe trade ; for which they were to receive a gratification of eight hundred dollars in merchandise. The commissioners, on this occasion, gave to the place the name of ' Council Grove.' But, although the route examined by the Commissioners named above, was partially marked out as far as the Arkansas, by raised mounds, it seems to have been of but httle service to travellers, who continued to follow the trail pre\'iously made by the wagons, which is now the settled road to the region of the short ' buffalo grass.' The designation of ' Council Grove,' after all, is perhaps the most appropriate that could be given to this place ; for we there held a 'grand council,' at which the respective claims of the different 'aspirants to office' were considered, leaders selected, and a sys- tem of government agreed upon, — as is the standing custom of these promiscuous cara- vans. One would have supposed that elec- THE GRAND COUNCIL. 45 tioneering and 'party spirit' would hardly have penetrated so. far into the wilderness : but so it was. Even in our httle community we had our ' office-seekers ' and their ' poh- tical adherents,' as earnest and as devoted as any of the modern school of politicians in the midst of civilization. After a great deal of bickering and wordy warfare, however, all the 'candidates' found it expedient to decline, and a gentleman by the name of Stanley, without seeking, or even desiring tlie 'office,' was unanimously proclaimed ' Cap- tain of the Caravan.' The powers of this officer were undefined by any 'constitu- tional provision,' and consequently vague and uncertain : orders being only viewed as mere requests, they are often obeyed or neglected at the caprice of the subordi- nates. It is necessary to observe, however, that the captain is expected to direct the order of travel durhig the day, and to designate the camping-ground at night ; with many other functions of a general character, in the exer- cise of which the company find it convenient to acquiesce. But the httle attention that is paid to liis commands in cases of emergency, I wiJl leave the reader to become acquainted with, as I did, by observing their manifesta- tions during the progress of the expedition. But after this comes the principal task of organizing. The proprietors are first notified by ' proclamation ' to furnish a list of their men and wagons. The latter are generally apportioned into four ' divisions,' particularly 46 ORGANIZATION AND MUSTER. when the company is large — and ours con- sisted of nearly a hundred wagons,^ besides a dozen of dearborns and other small vehi- cles, and two small cannons (a four and six pounder), each mounted upon a carriage. To each of these divisions, a 'lieutenant' was ap- pointed, whose duty it was to inspect every ^ravine and creek on the route, select the best crossmgs, and superintend what is called in prairie parlance, the 'forming' of each en- campment. Upon the calUiig of the roll, we were found to muster an efficient force of nearly two hun- dred men without counting invahds or other disabled bodies, who, as a matter of course, are exempt from duty. There is nothing so much dreaded by inexperienced travellers as the ordeal of guard duty. But no matter what the condition or employment of the indivi- dual may be, no one has the smallest chance of evading the ' common law of the prairies.' The amateur tourist and the listless loafer are precisely in the same wholesome predica- ment— they must all take their regular turn at the watch. There is usually a set of genteel idlers attached to every caravan, whose wits are forever at work in devising schemes for whiling away their irksome hours at the ex- pense of others. By embarking in these ' trips of pleasure,' they are enabled to live without expense ; for the hospitable traders seldom refuse to accommodate even a loafing compa- * About half of these wagons were drawn by ox-teams, the rest by mules. — The capital in merchandise of the whole caravan wap about $200,000. GUARD DUTY. 47 nioii with a berth at their mess without charge. But then these lounging attaches are expected at least to do good service by way of guard duty. None are even permitted to furnish a substitute, as is frequently done in miUtary ex- peditions, for he that would undertake to stand the tour of another besides his own, would scarcely be watchful enough for the dangers of the Prairies. Even the invalid must be able to produce unequivocal proofs of his inability, or it is a chance if the plea is ad- mitted. For my own part, although I started on the ' sick hst,' and though the prairie sen- tinel must stand fast and brook the severest storm (for then it is that the strictest watch is necessary), I do not remember ever havhig missed my post but once during the whole journey. The usual number of watches is eight, each standing a fourth of every alternate night. When the party is small the number is gene- rally reduced ; while in the case of very small bands, they are sometimes compelled for safe- ty's sake to keep one watch on duty half the night. With large caravans the captain usu- ally appoints eight ' sergeants of the guard,' each of whom takes an equal portion of men under his command. The heterogeneous appearance of our com- pany, consisting of men from every class and grade of society, with a httle sprinkhng of the softer sex, would have formed an excellent subject for an artist's pencil. It may appear, perhaps, a little extraordinary that females 4B A MOTLEY CREW. should have ventured across the Prairies under such forlorn auspices. Those who accompa- nied us, however, were members of a Span- ish family who had been banished in 1829, in pursuance of a decree of the Mexican con- gress, and were now returning to their homes in consequence of a suspension of the decree. Other females, however, have crossed the prairies to Santa Fe at different times, among whom I have known two respectable French ladies, who now reside in Chiliuahua. The Avild and motley aspect of the caravan can be but imperfectly conceived without an idea of the costumes ot its various members. The most ' fashionable ^ prairie dress is the fustian frock of the city-bred merchant furnished with a multitude of pockets capa- ble of accommodating a variety of 'extra tackling.' Then there is the backwoodsman with his linsey or leather hunting-shirt — the farmer with his blue jean coat — the wagoner with his flannel-sleeve vest — besides an as- sortment of other costumes which go to fill up the picture. In the article of fire-arms there is also an equally interesting medley. The frontier hunter sticks to his rifle, as nothing could in- duce him to carry what he terms in derision 'the scatter-gun.' The sportsman from the interior flourishes his double-barrelled fowling- piece with equal confidence in its superiority. The latter is certainly the most convenient description of gun that can be carried on this journey ; as a charge of buck-shot in night SUPPLY OF TIMBERS. 49 attacks (which are the most common), will of course be more likely to do execution than a single rilie-ball fired at random. The ' repeat- ing' arms liave lately been brought into use upon the Prairies, and they are certainly very formidable weapons, particularly when used against an ignorant savage foe. A great many were fui'nished beside with a bountiful supply of pistols and knives of every descrip- tion, so that the party made altogether a very brigand-hke appearance. During our delay at the Council Grove, the laborers were employed in procuring timber for axle-trees and other wagon repairs, of which a supply is always laid in before leav- ing this region of substantial growths; for henceforward there is no wood on the route fit for these purposes ; not even in the moun- tains of Santa Fe do we meet with any ser- viceable timber. The supply procured here is generally lashed under the wagons, in wliich way a log is not unfrequently carried to Santa Fe, and even sometimes back again. CHAPTER III. The 'Catch up' — Breaking up of the Encampment — Perversity of Mules — Under way — The Diamond Spring — Eccentricities of Oxen — First Glance of the Antelope — Buffalo Herds and Prairie Novices — A John Gilpin Race — Culinary Preparations — A Buffalo Feast — Appetite of Prairie Travellers — Troubles in Fording Streams — Fresh Alarms and their Causes — A "Wolfish Frolic — Arkansas River — Pleasing Scenery — Cha- racter of the Country — Extraordinary Surgical Operation — The ' Pawnee Rock ' — Salutary Effects of Alarms — New Or- der of March — Prairie Encampment and ' Upholstery ' — Hop- pling and Tethering of the 'Stock' — Crossing the Arkansas — Great Battle with Rattlesnakes — A Mustang Colt and a Mule Fracas — 'The Caches' — Origin and Signification of the Term. Owing to the delays of organizing and other preparations, we did not leave the Council Grove camp till May 27th. Although the usual hour of starting with the prairie caravans is after an early breakfast, yet, on . this occasion, we were hindered till in the af- ternoon. The famihar note of preparation, '' Catch up ! catch up !" was now sounded from the captain's camp, and re-echoed from every division and scattered group along the valley. On such occasions, a scene of confu- sion ensues, which must be seen to be appre- ciated. The woods and dales resound Avith the gleeful yells of the light-hearted wagon 'catch up.' 51 ers, who, weary of inaction, and filled with joy at the prospect of getting under way, be- come clamorous in the extreme. Scarcely does the jockey on the race-course ply his whip more promptly at that magic word ' Go,* than do these emulous wagoners fly to har- nessing their mules at the spirit-stirring sound of ' Catch up.' Each teamster vies with his fellows who shall be soonest ready ; and it Is a matter of boastful pride to be the first to cry out—" All's set !" The uproarious bustle which follows — the hallooing of those in pursuit of animals — the exclamations which the unruly brutes call forth from their wrathful drivers; together with the clatter of bells — the rattle of yokes and harness — the jingle of chains — all con- spire to produce a clamorous confusion, which would be altogether incomprehensible without the assistance of the eyes ; while these alone would hardly suflice to unravel the labyrinthian manoeuvres and hurly-burly of this precipitate brealdng up. It is some- times amusing to observe the athletic wagon- er hurrying an animal to its post — to see him ' heave upon ' the halter of a stubborn mule, while the brute as obstinately ' sets back,' de- termined not to 'move a peg' till his own good pleasure thinks it proper to do so — Ms whole manner seeming to say, " Wait till your hurry's over !" I have more than once seen a driver hitch a harnessed animal to the halter, and by that process haul ' his mulishness' for- ward, while each of his four projected feet 52 DIAMOND SPRING. would leave a furrow behind ; until at last the perplexed master would wrathfully ex- claim, " A mule will be a mule any way you can fix it ! " " All's set !" is finally, heard from some teamster — " All's set," is directly responded from every quarter. " Stretch out !" immedi- ately vociferates the captain. Then, the ' heps !' of drivers — ^the cracking of whips — the tramphng of feet — ^the occasional creak of wheels — the rumbhng of wagons — ^form a new scene of exquisite confusion, which I shall not attempt further to describe. " Fall in !" is heard from head-quarters, and the wagons are forth^vith strung out upon the long inclined plain, which stretches to the heights beyond Council Grove. After fifteen miles' progress, we arrived at the ' Diamond Spring' (a crystal fountain dis- charging itself into a small brook), to which, in later years, caravans have sometimes ad- vanced, before ' organizing.' Near twenty- five miles beyond we crossed the Cotton- wood fork of the Neosho, a creek still smaller than that of Council Grove, and our camp was pitched immediately in its further valley. When caravans are able to cross in the evening, they seldom stop on the near side of a sti*eam — first, because if it happen to rain during the night, it may become flooded, and cause both detention and trouble : again, though the stream be not impassable after r£iin, the banks become shppery and diflacult to ascend. A third and still more important FLURRY AMONG THE OXEN. 53 reason is,that, even supposing the con.bif^ency of rain does not occur, teams will rarely pull as well in ' cold collars,' as wagoners term it — that is, when fresh geared — as in the progress of a day's travel. When a heavy pull is just at hand in the morning, wagoners sometimes re- sort to the expedient of driving a circuit upon the prairie, before venturing to ' take the bank.* We experienced a temporary alarm during the evening, while we lay encamped at Cot- tonwood, which was rather more boisterous than serious in its consequences. The wa- gons had been ' formed' across the neck of a bend in the creek, into which the cattle were turned, mostly in their yokes ; for though, when thoroughly trained, teamsters usually unyoke their oxen every night, yet at first they often leave them coupled, to save the trouble of re-yoking them in their unruly state. A little after dark, these animals started simultaneously, with a thundering noise and rattle of the yokes, towards the outlet protect- ed by the wagons, but for which obstacle they might have escaped far into the prairie, and have been irrecoverably lost, or, at least, have occasioned much trouble and delay to re- cover them. The cause of the fright was not discovered; but oxen are exceedingly whimsical creatures when surrounded by un- famihar objects. One will sometimes take a fright at the jingle of his own yoke-irons, or the cough of his mate, and, by a sudden flounce, set the whole herd in a flurry. This was probably the case in the present instance ; 5* 54 FIRST GLIMPSE OF BUFFALa althongh some of our easily excited com- panions immediately surmised that the oxen had scented a lurking Pawnee. Our route lay through unmterrupted prairie for about forty miles — ^in fact I may say, for five hundred miles, exceptmg the very nar- row fringes of timber along the borders of the streams. The antelope of the high prairies which we now occasionally saw, is sometimes found as far east as Council Grove ; and as a few old buffaloes have sometimes been met with about Cottonwood, we now began to look out for this desirable game. Some scat- tering bulls are generally to be seen first, form- ing as it would appear the ' van' or ' piquet guards' of the main droves with their cows and calves. Tlie buffalo are usually found much further east early m the spring, than during the rest of the year, on account of the long grass, Avhich shoots up earher in the sea- son than the short pasturage of the plains. Our hopes of game were destined soon to be realized ; for early on the second day after leaving Cottonwood (a few miles beyond the principal Turkey creek), our eyes were greet- ed with the sight of a herd amounting to near- ly a hundred head of buffalo, quietly grazing in the distance before us. Half of our com- pany had probably never seen a buffalo be- fore (at least in its wild state) ; and the ex- citement that the first sight of these ' prairie beeves- J'^casions among a party of novices, T ^u J "Hption. Every horseman was beo^a^ars all dest... ' v ,, rfP * -d some oi the wagoners, oft m a scamper • au. ^ ' A BUFFALO CHASE. 55 leaving their teams to take care of themselves, seized their guns and joined the race afoot Here went one Avith his rifle or yager — there another with his double-barrelled shot-gun — a third with his holster-pistols — a Mexican perhaps with his lance — another Avith his bow and arrows — and numbers joined without any arms whatever, merely for the ' pleasures of the chase' — ail helter-skelter — a regular John G-ilpin race, truly ' neck or naught' The fleetest of the pursuers were soon m the midst of the game, which scattered in all directions, like a flock of birds upon the descent of a hawk. A few 'beeves' were killed during the chase ; and as soon as our camp was pitched, the bustle of kindhng fires and preparing for sup- per commenced. The new adventurers were curious to taste this prairie luxury ; while we all had been so long upon salt provisions — now nearly a month — that our appetites were in exquisite condition to relish fresh meat The fires had scarcely been kindled when the fumes of broihng meat pervaded the surround- ing atmosphere ; wliile all huddled about, anxiously watching their cookeries, and regal- ing their senses in anticipation upon the sa- vory odors which issued from them. For the edification of the reader, who has no doubt some curiosity on the subject, I will briefly mention, that the 'kitchen and table ware' of the traders usually consists of a skillet, a fr}dng-pan, a sheet-iron camp-kettle, a coffee- pot, and each man with his tin cup and a 56 PRAIRIE BRIDGES. butcher's knife. The cuhnary operations be- ing finished, the jDan and kettle are set upon the grassy turf, around which all take a ' low- ly seat,' and crack their gleesome jokes, while from their greasy hands they swallow their savory viands — all with a rehsh rarely expe- rienced at the well-spread tables of the most fashionable and wealtliy. The insatiable appetite acquired by travel- lers upon the Prairies is almost incredible, and the quantity of coffee drank is still more so. It is an unfaihng and apparently indispensa- ble beverage, served at every meal — even un- der the broihng noon-day sun, the wagoner will rarely fail to replenish a second time, his huge tin cup. Early the next day we reached the ' Little Arkansas,' which, although endowed witli an imposing name, is only a small creek Avith a current but five or six yards mde. But, though small, its steep banks and miry bed annoyed us exceedingly in crossmg. It is the practice upon the prairies on all such occasions, for several men to go in advance with axes, spades and mattocks, and, by digging the banks and erecting temporary bridges, to have all in readiness by the time the wagons arrive. A bridge over a quagmire is made in a few mi- nutes, by cross-laying it with brush (willows are best, but even long grass is often employ- ed as a substitute), and covering it with earth, — across which a hundred wagons will often pass in safety. We had now arrived at the point nearest FALSE ALARMS. 57 to the border, I believe, where any outrages have been perpetrated upon the traders to Santa Fe. One of the early packing compa- nies lost their animals on this spot, and had to send back for a new supply. Next day we reached Cow creek, where all the difficulties encountered at Little Arkansas had to be reconquered : but after digging, bridging, shouldering the wheels, with the usual accompaniment of whoopmg, swear- ing and cracking of whips, we soon got safely across and encamped in the valley beyond. Alarms now began to accunuilate more rapid- ly upon us. A couple of persons had a tew days before been chased to the wagons by a band of buffalo ; and this evening the en- campment was barely formed when two hunters came bolting in with information that a hundred, perhaps of the same 'enemy,' were at hand — at least this was the current opinion afterwards. The hubbub occasioned by this fearful news had scarcely subsided, when another arrived on a panting horse, crying out " Indians ! Indians ! I've just escaped from a couple, who pursued me to the very camp !" " To arms ! to arms !" resounded from eveiy quarter — and just then a wolf, attracted by the fumes of broihng buffalo bones, sent up a most hideous howl across the creek. " Some one in distress !" was instantly shouted : " To his relief!" vociferated th^ crowd — and off they bolted, one and all, arms in hand, hurly- burly — leaving the camp entirely unprotect- ed ; so that had an enemy been at hand in- 58 PRAIRIE SCENERY. deed, and approached us from the opposite di- rection, they might easily have taken posses- sion of the wagons. Before they had all re- turned, however, a couple of hunters came in and laughed very heartily at the expense of the first alarmist, whom they had just chased into the camp. Half a day's drive after leaving this camp of ' false alarms' brought us to the valley of Arkansas river. This point is about 270 miles from Independence. From the adjacent heights the landscape presents an imposing and picturesque appearance. Beneath a ledge of wave-like yellow sandy ridges and hillocks spreading far beyond, descends the majestic river (averaging at least a quarter of a mile in width), bespeckled with verdant islets, thickly set with Cottonwood timber. The banks are very low and barren, with the exception of an occasional grove of stunted trees, hiding be- hind a swamp or sand-hill, placed there as it were to protect it from the fire of the prairies, which in most parts keeps down every peren- nial growth. Li many places, indeed, where there are no islands, tlie river is so entirely bare of trees, that the unthmking traveller might approach almost to its very brink, without sus- pecting its presence. Thus far, many of the prairies have a fine and productive appearance, though the Neo- sho river (or Coiyicil Grove) seems to form the western boundary of the truly rich and beautiful country of the border. Up to that point the prairies are similar to those of Mi«- TRAIRIE SURGERY. 59 souri — the soil equally exuberant and fertile ; while all tlie country that hes beyond, is of a far more barren character — vegetation of eve- ry kind is more stinted — the gay flowers more scarce, and the scanty timber of a very infe- rior quahty: indeed, the streams, from Coun- cil Grove westward, are lined with very little else than cottonwood, barely interspersed here and there with an occasional elm or hack- berry. Following up the course of this stream for some twenty miles, now along the valley, and again traversing the points of projecting emi- nences, we reached Walnut creek. I have heard of a surgical operation performed at this point, in the summer of 1826, wliich, though not done exactly secundum artem, might sug- gest some novel reflections to the man of sci- ence. A few days before the caravan had reached this place, a Mr. Broadus, in attempt- ing to draw his rifle from a wagon muzzle foremost, discharged its contents into his arm. The bone being dreadfully shattered, the un- fortunate man was advised to submit to an amputation at once ; otherwise, it being in the month of August, and excessively warm, mortification would soon ensue. But Broadus obstinately refused to consent to this course, till death began to stare him in the face. By this time, however, the whole arm had become gangrened, some spots having already appeared above the place where the operation should have been performed. The invahd's case was therefore considered per- 60 HOT IRON VERSUS LIGATURES. fectly hopeless, and he was given up by all his comrades, who thought of httle else than to consign him to the grave. But being unwilling to resign himself to the fate wliich appeared frowning over him, with- out a last effort, he obtained the consent of two or three of the party, who undertook to amputate his arm merely to gratify the wishes of the dying man ; for in such a hght they vicAved him. Their only 'case of instru- ments' consisted of a handsaw, a butcher's knife and a large iron bolt The teeth of the saw being considered too coarse, they went to work, and soon had a set of fine teeth filed on the back. The knife having been whetted keen, and the iron bolt laid upon the fire, they commenced the operation : and in less time than it takes to tell it, the arm was opened round to the bone, which was almost in an instant sawed off; and with the whizzmg hot iron the whole stump was so effectually sear- ed as to close the arteries completely. Band- ages were now applied, and the company pro- ceeded on their joiirney as though nothing had occurred. The arm commenced heahng ra- pidly, and in a few weeks the patient was sound and well, and is perhaps still living, to bear witness to the superiority of the ' hot iron' over Ugatures, in ' taking up' arteries. On the following day our route lay mostly over a level plain, which usually teems with buffalo, and is beautifully adapted to the chase. At the distance of about fifteen miles, the attention of the traveller is directed to the * INDIAN SIGN.' 61" PaAvnee Rock,' so called, it is said, on account of a battle's having once been fought liard by, between the Pawnees and some other tribe. It is situated at the projecting point of a ridge, and upon its surface are furrowed, in uncouth bat legible characters, numerous dates, and the names of various travellers who have chanced to pass that way. We encamped at Ash creek, where we again experienced sundry alarms in conse- quence of ' Indian sign,' that was discovered in the creek valley, such as unextinguished fires, about which were found some old moc- casins,— a sure indication of the recent re- treat of savages from the vicinity. These constant alarms, however, although too fre- quently the result of groundless and unmanly fears, are not Avithout their salutary effects upon the party. They serve to keep one con- stantly on the alert, and to sharpen those facul- ties of observation which would otherwise become blunted or inactive. Thus far also we had marched in two lines only; but, after cross- ing the Pawnee Fork, each of the four divi- sions drove on in a separate file, which became henceforth the order of march till we reached the border of the mountains. By mo\ing in long lines as we did before, the march is con- tinually interrupted ; for every accident which delays a wagon ahead stops all those behind. By marching four abreast, this difiiculty is partially obviated, and the wagons can also be thrown more readily into a condition of defence in case of attack. 6 62 BEDDING AND TENTS. Upon oiicainpiiig the wagons are formed into a ' hollow square' (each division to a side), constituting at once an enclosure (or corral) for the animals when needed, and a fortification against the Indians. Not to em- barrass this cattle-pen, the camp fires are all lighted outside of the wagons. Outside of the wagons, also, the travellers spread their beds, which consist, for the most part, of buf- falo-rugs and blankets. Many content them- selves with a single Mackinaw ; but a pair constitutes the most regular pallet ; and he that is provided with a bufialo-rug into the bargain, is deemed luxuriously supphed. It is most usual to sleep out in the open air, as well to be at hand in case of attack, as indeed for comfort ; for the serene sky of the Prairies affords the most agreeable and wholesome canopy. That deleterious attribute of night air and dews, so dangerous in other chmates, is but httle experienced upon the high plains : on the contrary, the serene evening air seems to afiect the health rather favorably than oth- erwise. Tents are so rare on these expedi- tions that, in a caravan of tvvo hundred men, I have not seen a dozen. Li time of rain the traveller resorts to his wagon, which affords a far more secure shelter than a tent ; for if the latter is not beaten doAvn by the storms which so often accompany rain upon the prairies, the ground underneath is at least apt to be flooded. During dry weather, how- ever, even the invalid prefers the open air. Prior to the date of our trip it had been cus- CAMP REGULATIONS. 63 tomary to secure the horses by hoppling them. The 'fore-hopple' (a leathern strap or rope manacle upon the fore-legs) bemg most con- venient, was more frequently used; though the 'side-line' (a hopple connecting a fore and a hind leg) is the most secure ; for with this an animal can hardly increase liis pace beyond a hobbling walk ; whereas, with the fore-hopple, a frighted horse will scamper off with nearly as much velocity as though he were unshackled. But, better than either of these is the practice which the caravans have since adopted of tethering the mules at night around the wagons, at proper intervals, with ropes twenty-five or thirty feet in length, tied to stakes fifteen to t\\^enty inches long, driven into the ground ; a supply of wliich, as well as mallets, the wagoners always carry with them. It is amusing to witness the disputes which often arise among wagoners about their * staking ground.' Each teamster is allowed, by our ' common law,' a space of about a hundred yards immediately fronting his wagon, which he is ever ready to defend, if a neighbor shows a disposition to encroach upon his soil. If any animals are found ' staked' beyond the ' chartered Hmits,' it is the duty of the guard to 'knock them up,' and turn them into the corral Of later years the tethering of oxen has also been resorted to with advantage. It was thought at first that animals thus confined by ropes could not pro- cure a sufficient supply of food ; but experi- 64 STAMPEDES. ence has allayed all apprehension on the sub- ject. In fact, as the camp is always pitched in the most luxuriantly clothed patches of prairie that can be selected, a mule is seldom able to dispatch in the course of one night, all the grass within his reach. Again, when animals are permitted to range at liberty, they are apt to mmce and nibble at the tenderest blades and spend their time in roaming from point to point, in search of what is most agree- able to their ' epicurean palates ;' whereas if they are restricted by a rope, they will at once fall to with earnestness and chp the pasturage as it comes. Although the buffalo had been scarce for a few days, — frightened off, no doubt, by the Indians whose ' sign' we saw about Ash creek, they soon became exceedingly abundant. The larger droves of these animals are sometimes a source of great annoyance to the caravans, as, by running near our loose stock, there is frequent danger of their causing stampedes (or general scamper), in which case mules, horses and oxen have been known to run away among the buffalo, as though they had been a gang of their owii species. A com- pany of traders, in 1824, lost twenty or thirty of their animals in this way. Hunters have also been deprived of their horses in the same way. Leaping from them in haste, in order to take a more determinate aim at a buffalo, the horse has been known to take fright, and following the fleeing game, has disappeared with saddle, bridle, pistols and all — most pro- FORDING THE ARKANSAS. 65 bably never to be heard of again. In fact, to look for stock upon these prairies, would be emphatically to ' search for a needle in a hay- stack;' not only because they are virtually boundless, but that being everywhere ahve with herds of buffalo, from wliich horses can- not be distinguished at a distance, one knows not whither to turn in search after the stray animals. We had lately been visited by frequent showers of rain, and upon observing the Ar- kansas river, it was found to be rising, which seemed portentous of the ti'oubles Avhich the ' June freshet' might occasion us in crossing it; and, as it was already the 11th of this month, this annual occurrence was now hourly expected. On some occasions cara- vans have been obUged to construct what is called a 'buffalo-boat,' wliich is done by stretch- ing the hides of these animals over a frame of poles, or, what is still more common, over an empty wagon-body. The ' June freshets,' however, are seldom of long duration ; and, during the greatest portion of the year, the channel is very shallow. Still the bed of the river being in many places filled with quick- sand, it is requisite to examine and mark out the best ford with stakes, before one under- takes to cross. The wagons are then driven over usually by double teams, which should never be permitted to stop, else animals and wagons are apt to founder, and the loading is liable to be damaged. I have witnessed a whole team down at once, rendering it neces- 6* 66 RATTLESNAKES. sary to unharness and drag each mule out separately : in fact, more than common exer- tion is sometimes required to prevent these dumpish animals from drowning in their fright and struggles through the water, though the current be but shallow at the place. Hence it is that oxen are much safer for fording streams than mules. As for ourselves, we forded the river without serious difficulty. Rattlesnakes are proverbially abundant up- on all these prairies, and as there is seldom to be found either stick or stone with which to kill them, one hears almost a constant popping of rifles or pistols among the vanguard, to clear the route of these disagreeable occu- pants, lest they should bite our animals. As we were toiling up through the sandy hil- locks which border the southern banks of the Arkansas, the day being exceedingly warm, we came upon a perfect den of these reptiles. I will not say ' thousands,' though this perhaps were nearer the truth — but hundreds at least were coiled or crawhng in every direction. They were no sooner discovered than we were upon them with guns and pistols, de- termined to let none of them escape. In the midst of this amusing scramble among tlie snakes, a wild mustang colt, which had, somehow 'or other, become separated from its dam, came bolting among our relay of loose stock to add to the confusion. One of our mules, e\'idently impressed with the impertinence of the intruder, sprang forward and attacked it, with the apparent intention THE CACHES. 67 of executing summary chastisement ; while another mule, witli more benignity of temper than its irascible compeer, engaged most lus- tily in defence of the unfortunate httle mus- tang. As the contest was carried on among the wagons, the teamsters soon became very uproarious ; so that the whole, with the snake fracas, made up a capital scene of confusion. When the mule skirmish would have ended, if no one had interfered, is a question which remained undetermined ; for some of our company, in \iew of the consequences that might result from the contest, rather inhu- manly took sides with the assaihng mule ; and soon after they entered the lists, a rifle ball reheved the poor colt from its earthly em- barrassments, and the company from further domestic disturbance. Peace once more re- stored, we soon got under way, and that eve- ning pitched our camp opposite the celebrated ' Caches,' a place where some of the earhest adventurers had been compelled to conceal their merchandise. The liistory of the origin of these ' Caches' may be of sufficient interest to merit a brief recital. Beard, of the unfortunate party of 1812, alluded to in the first chapter, having returned to the United States in 1822, together with Chambers, who had descended the Cana- dian river the year before, induced some small capitaUsts of St. Louis to join in an enter- prise, and then undertook to return to Santa Fe the same fall, Avith a small party and an assortment of merchandise. Reaching the Ar- 68 A REMINISCENCE. kansas late in tlie season, they were overtaken by a heavy snow storm, and driven to take sheher on a large island. A rigorous winter ensued, which forced them to remain pent up in that place for three long months. During tliis time the greater portion of their animals perished ; so that, when the spring began to open, they were unable to continue their journey with their goods. In tliis emergency they made a cache some distance above, on the north side of the river, where they stowed away the most of their merchandise. From thence they proceeded to Taos, where they procured mules, and returned to get their hid- den property. Few travellers pass this way without visit- ing these mossy pits, some of wliich remain partly unfilled to the present day. Li the vicinity, or a few miles to the eastward per- haps, passes the hundredth degree of longi- tude Avest from Greenwich, which, from the Arkansas to Red River, forms the boundary between the United States and the Mexican, or rather the Texan territory. The term cacJie^ meaning a plcKe of conceal- ment^ was originally used by the Canadian French trappers and ti'aders. It is made by digging a hole in the ground, somewhat in the shape of a jug, which is lined with dry sticks, grass, or anytliing else that will pro- tect its contents from the dampness of the earth. In this place the goods to be conceal- ed are carefully stowed away ; and the aper- ture is then so effectually closed as to protect ANTIQUITY OF THE CACHE. 69 them from the rains. Li cachings a great deal of skill is often required, to leave no signs whereby the cunning savage might discover tlie place of deposit. To this end, the exca- vated earth is carried to some distance and carefully concealed, or thrown into a stream, if one be at hand. The place selected for a cache is usually some rolling point, sufficient- ly elevated to be secure from inundations. If it be well set with grass, a soUd piece of turf is cut out large enough for the entrance. The turf is afterward laid back, and taking root, in a short time no signs remain of its ever having been molested. However, as every locahty does not afford a turfy site, the camp fire is sometimes built upon the place, or the animals are penned over it, which ef- fectually destroys all traces of the cache. This mode of conceaUng goods seems to have been in use from the time of the earhest French voyagers in America. Father Henne- pin, during his passage down the IVIississippi river, in 1680, describes an operation of this kind in the foUowmg terms : " We took up the green Sodd, and laid it by, and digg'd a hole in the Earth where we put our Goods, and covered them with pieces of Timber and Earth, and then put in again the green Turf; so that 'twas impossible to suspect that any Hole had been digg'd under it, for we flung the Earth into the River." Returning a few Aveeks after, they found the cache all safe and sound. CHAPTER IV. A Desert Plain — Preparation for a 'Water-Scrape' — Accident to a French Doctor — Upsetting of a Wagon and its Consequences — A Party of Sioux Warriors — The first real Alarm — Confu- sion in the Camp — Friendly Demonstrations of the Indians — The Pipe of Peace — Squaws and Papooses — An Extemporary Village — Lose our Track — Search after the Lost River — Hor- rible Prospective — The Cimarron Found at last — A Night of Alarms — Indian Serenade and Thieving — Indian Diplomacy — Hail-stones and Hurricanes — Position of the Captain of a Cara- van— His Troubles, his Powers and Want of Powers — More Indians — Hostile Encounter — Results of the Skirmish — The * Battle-Ground' — Col. Vizcarra and the Gros Ventres. Our route had already led us up the course of the Arkansas river for over a hundred miles, yet the earUer caravans often passed from fifty to a hundred further up before crossing the river; therefore notliing like a regular ford had ever been estabUshed. Nor was there a road, not even a trail, anywhere across the famous plain, extending between the Arkan- sas and Cimarron rivers, a distance of over fifty miles, wliich now lay before us — the scene of such frequent sufferings in former times for want of water. It having been determined upon, however, to strike across this dreaded desert the following morning, the whole party was busy in preparing for the ' water scrape,' A 'PRAIKIE OCEAN.' 71 as these droughty drives are very appropriately called by prairie travellers. This tract of coun- try may truly be styled the grand ' prairie ocean ;' for not a single landmark is to be seen for more than forty miles — scarcely a visible eminence by which to direct one's course. All is as level as the sea, and the compass was our surest, as well as principal guide. Hi view of this passage, as well as that of many other dry stretches upon the route, the traveller should be apprised of the necessity of providing a water-cask holding at least five gallons to each wagon, in which a supply for drinking and cooking may be carried along to serve in cases of emergency. The evening before the embarking of a caravan upon this plain, the captain's voice is usually heard above the din and clatter of the camp, ordering to " fill up the water kegs," — a precaution which cannot be repeated too often, as new adventurers are usually ignorant of the necessity of pro\dding a supply suffi- cient to meet every contingency that may be- fal during two or more days' journey over tliis arid region. The cooks are equally engrossed by their respective vocations : some are mak- ing bread, others preparing viands, and all tasking their ingenuity to lay by such stores as may be deemed expedient for at least two days' consumption. On the following morn- ing (June 14th), the words ' catch up' again resounded through the camp, and the cara- van was once more in motion. For the first five miles we had a heavy pull 72 SERIOUS ACCIDENTS. among the sandy hillocks ; but soon the broad and level plain opened before us. We had hardly left the river's side, however, when we experienced a delay of some hours, in conse- quence of an accident which came very nigh proving fatal to a French doctor of our com- pany. Fearful lest his stout top-heavy dear- born should upset whilst skirting the slope of a hill, he placed himself below in order to sustain it with his hands. But, in spite of all his exertions, the carriage tumbled over, crush- ing and masliing him most frightfully. He was taken out senseless, and but httle hopes were at first entertained of his recovery. Having revived, however, soon after, we were enabled to resume our march ; and, in the course of time, the wounded patient entirely recovered. The next day we fortunately had a heavy shower, which afforded us abundance of water. Havmg also swerved considerably to- ward the south, we fell into a more uneven section of country, where Ave had to cross a brook swelled by the recent rain, into which one of the wagons was unfortunately over- set. Tills, however, was not a very uncom- mon occurrence; for unruly oxen, when thirsty, will often rush into a pool in despite of the driver, dragging the wagon over every object in their way, at the imminent risk of turning it topsy-tur\y into the water. We were now compelled to make a halt, and all hands flocked to the assistance of the owner of the damaged cargo. In a few minutes SIOUX VISIT. 73 about an acre of ground was completely covered with calicoes, and other domestic goods, presenting altogether an interesting spectacle. All were busily occupied at this work when some objects were seen moving in the dis- tance, which at first were mistaken for buffalo; bat were speedily identified as horsemen. Anxiety was depicted in every countenance. Could it be possible- that the party of Capt. Sublette, wiiich was nearly a month ahead of us, had been lost in these dreary solitudes ? or was it the band of Capt. Bent, who was expected to follow some time after us ? This anxious suspense, however, lasted only for a few minutes ; and the cry of " Lidians !" soon made the welkin ring. vStill they appeared to approach too slowly for the western prairie tribes. A Uttie nearer, and we soon perceived that they carried a flag, wliich turned out to be that of the United States. This welcome sight allayed at once all uneasiness ; as it is well known that most savages, when friendly, approach the whites with a hoisted flag, pro- vided they have one. It turned out to be a party of about eighty Sioux, who were on a tour upon the Prairies for the purpose of trad- ing with, stealing from or marauding upon the south-western nations. Our communica- tions were carried on entirely by signs ; yet we understood them perfectly to say, that there were immense numbers of Indians ahead, upon the Cimarron river, whom they described by symbolic language to be Blackfeet and Co 74 ALARM ON THE CIMARRON. maiiclies ; a most agreeable prospect for the imas^ination to dwell upon! We now moved on slowly and leisurely, for all anxiety on the subject of water had been happily set at rest by frequent falls of rain. But imagme our consternation- and dismay, when, upon descending into the valley of the Cimarron, on the morning of the 19th of June, a band of Indian warriors on horse- back suddenly appeared before us from be- hind the ravines — an imposing array of death- dealino^ savasres! There was no merriment in this ! It was a genuine alarm — a tangible reahty ! These warriors, however, as we soon discovered, were only the van-guard of a ' countless host,' who were by this time pour- ing over the opposite ridge, and galloping directly towards us. The wagons were soon irregularly ' formed' upon the liill-side : but in accordance with the habitual carelessness of caravan traders, a great portion of the men Avere unprepared for the emergency. Scores of guns were ' empty,' and as many more had been wetted by the recent showers, and Avould not ' go off' Here was one calUng for balls — another for powder — a third for flints. Exclamations, such as, " I've broke my ramrod" — " I've spilt my caps" — " I've rammed down a ball without powder" — " My gun is ' choked ;' give me yours" — were heard from ditferent quarters; while a timorous ' greenhorn' would perhaps cry out, " Here, teike my gun, you can out- shoot me !" The more daring bolted off to HOSTILE DEMONSTRATIONS. 75 encounter the enemy at once, while the timid and cautious took a stand with presented rifle behind the wagons. The Lidians who were in advance made a bold attempt to press upon us, wliich came near costing them dearly ; for some of our fiery backwoodsmen more than once had their rusty but unerring rifles direct- ed upon the intruders, some of whom would inevitably have fallen before their deadly aim, liad not a few of the more prudent traders in- terposed. The savages made demonstrations tio less hostile, rushing, with ready sprung bows, upon a portion of our men who had gone in search of water; and miscliief would, per- haps, have ensued, had not the impetuosity of the warriors been checked by the wise men of the nation. The Indians were collecting around us, however, m such great numbers, tliat it was deemed expedient to force them away, so as to resume our march, or at least to take a more advantageous position. Our company was therefore mustered and drawn up in 'fine of battle ;' and, accompanied by the sound of a drum and fife, we marched towards the main group of the Indians. The latter seemed far more dehgrhted than frightened with this strange parade and music, a spectacle they had, no doubt, never witnessed before, and perhaps looked upon the whole movement rather as a complimentary salute than a hos- tile array ; for there was no interpreter through whom any communication could be convey- ed to thenL But, whatever may have been 76 CONCILIATORY SMOKE. their impressions, one thing is certain, — that tiie principal chief (who was dressed in a long red coat of strouding, or coarse cloth) appear- ed to have full conlidence hi the virtues of liis calumet; wliich he hghted, and came boldly forward to meet our warlike corps, serenely smoking the 'pipe of peace.' Our captaui, now taking a whiti^ whh the savage chief, directed hirn by signs to cause his warriors to retire. This most of them did, to rejoin the long train of squaws and papooses with the baggage, who followed in the rear, and were just then seen emerging from be- yond the hills. Having slowly descended to the banks of the stream, they pitched their wigwams or lodges; over five hundred of which soon bespeckled the ample valley be- fore us, and at once gave to its recently meagre surface the aspect of an uiimense Indian tillage. The enth*e number of the Indians, when collected together, could not have been less than from tsvo to three thou- sand— although some of our company insisted that there Avere at least four thousand souls. In such a case they must have mustered nearly a thousand warriors, while we were but httle over two hundred strong. Still, our superior arms and the protection afforded by the wagons, gave us considerably the advan- tage, even supposing an equahty in point of valor. However, the appearance of the squaws and children soon conAdnced us, that, for the present, at least, they had no hostile in- tentions; so we also descended into the valley SEARCH FOR Till: CIMARHON. 77 and formed our Ciiiiip a tew hundred yards below them. The ' capitanes/ or head men of the whiles and Indians, shortly after met, and, again smoking the calumet, agreed to be friends. Although we were now on the very banks of the Cimarron, even the most experienced traders of our party, whether through fright or ignorance, seemed utterly unconscious of the fact. Having made our descent, far be- low the usual point of approach, and there being not a drop of water found in the sandy bed of the river, it was mistaken for Sand creek, and we accordingly proceeded without noticing it. Therefore, after our 'big talk' was concluded, and dinner dispatched, we again set out southward, in search of the Cimarron. As we were starting, warriors, squaws and papooses now commenced flocking about us, gazing at our wagons with amazement ; for many of them had never, perhaps, seen such vehicles before. A few chiefs and others fol- lowed us to our next encampment ; but these were sent away at night. Our guards Avere now doubled, as a night attack was apprehended ; for although we were well aware that Indians never commit outrages with their famihes at hand, yet it was feared that they might either send them away or conceal them during the night. A httle after dark, these fears seemed about to be realized ; as a party of thirty or forty Indians were seen coming up towards the encamp- ment. Immediate preparations were made 7* 78 LOST ON Tin-: desert. to attack them, when they turned out to be a band of squaws, with merely a few men as gallants — all of whom were summarily turned adrift, without waithig to speculate upon the objects of their visit. The next morning a few others made their appearance, which we treated in precisely the same manner, as a horse was missing, which it was presumed the Indians had stolen. We continued . our march southward in search of the ' lost river.' After a few miles' travel we encountered a ledge of sand-hills, which obstructed our course, and forced us to turn westward and follow their border for the rest of the day. Finding but httle water that night, and none at all the next day, we began by noon to be sadly frightened ; for notliing is more alarming to the prairie traveller than a ' water-scrape.' The impression soon be- came general that we were lost — lost on that inhospitable desert, which had been the thea- tre of so many former scenes of suffering ! and our course impeded by sand-hills! A council of the veteran travellers was called to take our emergency into consideration. I* was at once resolved to strike in a northwest- erly direction in search of the ' dry ravine ' we had left behind us, which was now supposed to have been the Cimari'on. We had just set out, when a couple of In- dians approached us, bringing the horse we had lost the night before ; an apparent demon- stration of good faith which could hardly have been anticipated. It was evidently an effort VALLEY OF THE CIMARRON. 79 to ingratiate themselves in our favor, and es- tablish an intercourse — perhaps a traffic. But the outrages upon Major Riley, as well as upon a caravan, not two years before, perpe- trated probably by the same Indians, were fresh in the memory of all ; so that none of us were ^^dlling' to confide in their friendly professions. On inquiring by means of signs for the nearest water, they pointed to the di- rection we were travellmg : and finally taking the lead, they led us, by the shortest way, to the valley of the long-sought CimaiTon, which, with its delightful green-grass glades and flowing torrent (very different in appear- ance from where we had crossed it below), had all the aspect of an ' elysian vale,' com- pared with what we had seen for some time past. We pitched our camp in the valley, much rejoiced at having again ' made a port.' We were not destined to rest long in peace, however. About midnight we were all aroused by a cry of alarm, the like of which had not been heard since the day Don Quixote had his famous adventure with the fuUing-mills ; and I am not quite sure but some of our party suffered as much from fright as poor Sancho Panza did on that me- morable occasion. But Don Quixote and Sancho only heard the thumping of the mills and the roaring of the waters; while we heard the thumping of the Indian drums, ac- companied by occasional yells, which our ex- cited fancies immediately construed into notes of the fearful war-sons. 80 INDIAN PERTINACITY. After the whole company had been under arms for an hour or two, findmg the cause of alarm approached no nearer, we again retired to rest Biit a little before dayhght we were again startled by the announcement — " The Indians are corning ! — they are upon the very camp !'' In a moment every man was up in arms; and several guns were presented to * salute' the visitors, when, to our extreme mortification, they were found to be but eight or ten in number. They were immediately dispatched, by signs, and directed to remain away till morning — which they did. On the following day, we had been in mo- tion but a few minutes, when the Indians be- gan flocking around us in large numbers, and by the time we encamped in the evening, we had perhaps a thousand of these pertinacious creatures, males and females, of all ages and descriptions, about us. At night, every means, without resorting to absolute violence, was employed to drive them away, but without entire success. At this time a small band of warriors took the round of our camp, and ' serenaded ' us with a monotonous song of liee-O'hehs, with the view, I suppose, of gain- ing permission to remain ; hoping, no doubt, to be able to ' drive a fair business' at pilfer- ing during the night. In fact, a few small articles were already missing, and it was now discovered that they had purloined a pig of lead (between fifty and a hundred pounds weight) from one of the cannon-carriages, where it had been carelessly left. This in- THE FINAL TREATY. 81 creased the uneasiness which ah-eady prevail- ed to a considerable extent ; and many of us would imagine it already moulded into bul- lets, which we were perhaps destined to re- ceive before morning from the muzzles of their fusils. Some were even so hberal as to express a wiUingness to pardon the theft, rather than give the Lidians the trouble of sending it back in so hasty a manner. After a tedious night of suspense and conjecture, it was no small reUef to those whose feelings had been so highly A\Tought upon, to find, on waking up in the morning, that every man still retained his scalp. We started at a much earlier hour, this morning, in hopes to leave our Indian tor- mentors behind; but they were too wide- awake for us. By the time the wagoners had completed the task of gearing their teams, the squaws had ' geared' their dogs, and load- ed them with their lodge poles and covers, and other hght ' plunder,' and were traveiUng fast in our wake. Much to our comfort, how- ever, the greatest portion abandoned us before night ; but the next day several of the chiefs overtook us again at noon, seeming anxious to renew the ' treaty of peace.' The truth is, the former treaty had never been ' sealed' — they had received no presents, which form an indispensable ratification of all their ' treaties' with the whites. Some fifty or sixty dollars' worth of goods having been made up for them, rhey now left us apparently satisfied; and al- though they continued to return and annoy us 82 niAlRIE STORMS. for a couple of days longer ; they at last en- tirely disappeared. It was generally supposed at the time that there was a great number of Comanches and Arrapahoes among this troop of savages ; but they were principally if not altogether Blackfeet and Gros Ventres. We afterward learned that on their return to the northern mountains, they met with a terrible defeat from the Sioux and other neighboring tribes, in which they were said to have lost more than half their number. We now encountered a great deal of wet weather ; in fact this region is famous for cold protracted rains of two or three days' dura- tion. Storms of hail-stones larger than hen's eg^s are not uncommon, frequently accom- panied by the most tremendous hurricanes. The violence of the wind is sometimes so great that, as I have heard, two road-wagons were once capsized by one of these terrible thunder-gusts ; the rain, at the same time, fioatmg the plain to the depth of several inch- es. In short, I doubt if there is any known region out of the tropics, that can ' head' the great prairies in ' getting up' thunder-storms, combining so many of the elements of the awful and subhme. During these storms the guards were often very careless. This was emphatically the case with us, notwithstanding our knovvledf^e of the proximity of a horde of savages. In fact, the caravan was subject to so little con* trol that the patience of Capt. Stanley under- went some very severe trials ; so much so * TROUBLES IN THE WIGWAM.' 83 that he threatened more than once to resign. Truly, there is not a better school for testing a man's temper, than the command of a pro- miscuous caravan of independent traders. The rank of captain is, of course, but httle more than nominal. Every proprietor of a two-horse wagon is apt to assume as much authority as the commander himself, and to issue his orders without the least consultation at head-quarters. It is easy then to conceive that the captain has anything but an enviable berth. He is expected to keep order while few are disposed to obey — loaded with exe- crations for every mishap, whether acciden- tal or otherwise ; and when he attempts to remonstrate he only renders himself ridicu- lous, being entirely without power to enforce his commands. It is to be regretted that some system of ' maritime law' has not been intro- duced among these traders to secure subordi- nation, which can never be attained while the commander is invested with no legal author- ity. For my own part, I can see no reason why the captain of a prairie caravan should not have as much power to call his men to ac- count for disobedience or mutiny, as the cap- tain of a ship upon the high seas. After following the course of the Cimarron for two days longer, we at length reached a place called the ' Willow Bar,' where we took the usual mid-day respite of two or three hours, to afford the animals time to feed, and our cooks to prepare dinner. Our wagons were regularly * formed,' and the animals 84 SKIRMISH WITH INDIANS. turned loose to graze at leisure, with only a ' day-guard' to watch them. Those who had finished their dinners lay stretched upon their blankets, and were just beginning to enjoy the luxury of a siesta — when all of a sudden, the fearful and oft-reiterated cry of " Indians !" turned this scene of repose into one of bus- tle and confusion. From the opposite ridge at the distance of a mile, a swarm of savages were seen coming upon us, at full charge, and their hideous whoop and yell soon resounded through the valley. Such a jumbhng of promiscuous voices I never expect to hear again. Every one fancied himself a commander, and voci- ferated his orders accordingly. The air was absolutely rent with the cries of " Let's charge 'em, boys I" — " Fire upon 'em, boys !" — " Re- serve! don't fire till they come nearer!" — while the voice of our captain was scarcely distinguishable in his attempts to prevent such rash proceedings. As the prairie Indians of- ten approach their friends as well as enemies in this way, Captain Stanley was unwilling to proceed to extremities, lest they might be peacefully inchned. But a ' popping salute,' and the whizzing of fusil balls over our heads, soon explained their intentions. We returned them several rifle shots by way of comph- ment, but without efiect, as they were at too great a distance. A dozen cannoniers now surrounded our ' artillery,' wliich was charged with canister Each of them had, of course, something to THE -BATTLE GROUND.' 85 say. "Elevate her; she'll groiincV one would suggest. " She'll overshoot, noAv." re- jomed another. At last, after raising and lowering the six-pounder several times, during which process the Indians had time to retreat beyond reach of shot, the match was final- ly appUed, and — bang! went the gun, but the charge grounded mid-way. This was followed by two or three shots with single ball, bat apparently without effect ; although there were some with sharp eyes, who fan- cied they saw Indians or horses wounded at every fire. We came off equally unscathed from the conflict, barring a horse of but little value, which ran away, and was taken by the enemy. The Indians were about a hundred in number, and supposed to be Comanches, though they might have been a band of war- riors belonging to the party we had just left behind. The novices were not a Uttle discouraged at these frequent inroads of the enemy, al- though it is very seldom that any fives are lost in encounters Avith them. In the course of twenty years since the commencement of this trade, I do not believe there have been a dozen deaths upon the Santa Fe route, even including those who have been killed off by disease, as well as by the Indians. On the following day we encamped near the ' Battle Ground,' famous for a skirmish which a caravan of traders, in company with a detachment of Mexican troops, under the command of Col. Vizcarra, had in 1829 with 86 A FIGHT WITH THE GROS VENTRES. a band of Gros Ventres. The united com- panies had just encamped on the Cimarron, near the site of the burial catastrophe which occurred the preceding year. A party of about a hundred and twenty Indians soon after approached them on foot; but as the Ameri- cans were but httle disposed to admit friendly intercourse between them, they passed into the camp of the Mexican commander, who received them amicably — a circumstance not altogether agreeable to the traders. As the In- dians seemed disposed to remain till morning, Col. Yizcarra promised that they should be disarmed for the night; but the cunning Avretches made some excuse to delay the sur- render of their weapons, until the opportuni- ty being favorable for a coup de main, they sprang to their feet, raised a fearful yell, and fired upon the unsuspecting party. Their aim seems chiefly to have been to take the hfe of the Mexican colonel ; and it is said that a Taos Indian who formed one of the Mexican es- cort, seeing a gun levelled at his commander, sprang forward and received the ball in his own body, from the effects of which he in- stantly expired ! The Indians were pursued for several miles into the hills, and a consid- erable number killed and wounded. Of the Americans not one received the slightest in- jury ; but of the Mexican dragoons, a captain and two or three privates were killed. CHAPTER V. A Beautiful Ravine — ' Runners' Starting for Santa F^ — Fourth of July on the Prairies — The Cibolero or Buffalo-hunter — Mournful News of Captain Sublette's Company— Murder of Captain Smith and another of the party by the Indians — Carelessness and Risks of Hunters — Captain Sublette's Peril — Character and Pursuits of the Ciboleros — The An of Curing Meat — Purity of the Atmosphere — The 'Round Mound' — The Mirage or False Ponds-^Philosophy thereof — Extensive and Interesting View — Exaggerated Accounts by Travellers of the Buffalo of the Prairies — Their Decrease — A ' Stampede' — Wagon Repairing — Rio Colorado or Canadian River — Meeting between old Friends — Mexican Escort — Disorganiz- ing of the Caravan — Dreadful Thunder-storm — First Symp- toms of Civilization — San Miguel — Arrival at Santa Fe — Entry of the Caravan — First Hours of Recreation — Inter- preters and Custom-house Arrangements — A Glance at the Trade, etc. It was on the last day of June that we ar- rived at the ' Upper Spring,' which is a small fountain breaking into a ravine that dechnes towards the Cimarron some three or four miles to the north. The scarcity of water in these desert regions, gives to every little spring an uxiportance which, of course, in more favored countries it would not enjoy. We halted at noon on the brook below, and then branched off towards the waters of the Canadian, in an average direction of about 88 THE AVANT-COURIERS. thirty degrees south of west. As the wagon- road passes upon the adjacent ridge a quarter of a mile to the south of this sprmg, some of us, to procure a draught of its refresliing wa- ter, pursued a path along the ravine, Avinding through dense thickets of underbrush, matted with green-briers and grape-vines, which, with the wild-currant and plum-bushes, were all bent under their unripe fruit. The wildness of this place, with its towering chffs, craggy spurs, and deep-cut crevices, became doubly impressive to us, as we reflected that we were in the very midst of the most savage haunts. Often will the lonely traveller, as he plods his weary way in silence, imagine in each chck of a pebble, the snap of a firelock, and in every rebound of a twig, the whisk of an arrow. After regahng ourselves with a draught of the dehcious beverage which gushed from the pure fountain, we ascended the rugged heights and rejoined the caravan half a mile beyond. We had now a plain and perfectly distin- guishable track before us, and a party of avant- couriers, known in the technical parlance of the Prairies as ' runners,' soon began to make preparations for pushing forward in advance of the caravan into Santa Fe, though we were yet more than two hundred miles from that city. It is customary for these runners to take their departure from the caravans in the night, in order to evade the vigilance of any enemy that might be lurking around the encamp- ment. They are generally proprietors or PATRIOTISM ON THE TRAIRIES. 89 aojents ; and their principal purpose is to pro- cure and send back a supply of provisions, to secure good store-houses, and what is no less important, to obtain an agreeable understand- ing with the officers of the custom-house. The second day after the departure of the runners, as we lay encamped at IVIcNees's creek, the Fourth of July dawned upon us. Scarce had gray twilight brushed his dusky brow, when our patriotic camp gave lively demonstrations of that joy which plays around the heart of every American on the anniver- sary of this triumphant day. The roar of our artillery and rifle platoons resounded from every hill, while the rumbling of the drum and the shrill whistle of the fife, imparted a degree of martial interest to the scene which was well calculated to stir the souls of men. There was no limit to the huzzas and enthu- siastic ejaculations of our people ; and at every new shout the dales around sent forth a gladsome response. This anniversary is al- ways hailed with heart-felt joy by the way- farer in the remote desert ; for here the strifes and intrigues of party-spirit are unknown : nothing intrudes, in these wild sohtudes, to mar that harmony of feeling, and almost pious exultation, which every true-hearted American experiences on this great day. The next day's march brought us in front of the Rabbit-Ear Mounds, which might now be seen at a distance of eight or ten miles south of us, and which before the present track was estabhshed, served as a guide to travellers. 90 MEXICAN CIBOLERO. The first caravan of wagons that crossed these plains, passed on the south side of these mounds, having abandoned our present route at the ' Cold Spring,' where we encamped on the night of the 1st of July. Although the route we were travelling swerves somewhat too much to the north, that pursued by the early caravans as stated above, made still a greater circuit to the south, and was by far the most inconvenient. As we were proceeding on our march, we observed a horseman approaching, who excit- ed at first considerable curiosity. His pictu- resque costume, and pecuharity of deport- ment, however, soon showed him to be a Mexican Clholero or buffalo-hunter. These hardy devotees of the chase usually wear leathern trousers and jackets, and flat straw hats ; wliile, swung upon the shoulder of each hangs his carcage or quiver of bow and ar- rows. The long handle of their lance being set in a case, and suspended by the side with a strap from the pommel of the saddle, leaves the point waving high over the head, with a tassel of gay parti-colored stufls dangling at the tip of the scabbard. Their fusil, if they happen to have one, is suspended in hke manner at the other side, with a stopper in the muzzle fantastically tasselled. The Clholero saluted us with demonstra- tions of joy; nor were we less delighted at meeting with him ; for we were now able to obtain information from Santa Fe, whence no news had been received since MOURNFUL INTELLIGENCE. 91 the return of the caravan tlie preceding fall. Traders and idlers, with equal curiosity, clustered around the new \'isitor ; every one who could speak a word of Spanish having some question to ask : — " What prospects?" — " How are goods ?'' — " What news from the South?" — while the more experienced tra- ders interested themselves chiefly to ascertain the condition of the custom-house, and who were the present revenue officers ; for unpro- pitious changes sometimes occiu: during the absence of the caravans. But whatever joy we at first experienced was soon converted into mourning, by a piece of most melancholy news — the tragical death of a celebrated veteran mountain adventurer. It has already been mentioned that Capt. Sublette and others had started near a month in advance of our company. We had fre- quently seen their trail, and once or twice had received some vague information of their whereabouts through the Indians, but nothing satisfactory. Our visitor now informed us that a captain of tliis band had been assassi- nated by the Indians ; and from his descrip- tion we presumed it to be Capt. Smith, one of the partners, — which was afterwards con- firmed, with many paiticulars of the adven- tures of this company. Capt. Smith and his companions were new beginners in the Santa Fe trade, but being veteran pioneers of the Rocky Mountains, they concluded they could go anywhere ; and imprudently set out without a single person 92 cAFi^AiN Sublette's party. in their company at all competent to guide them on the route. They had some twenty- odd wagons, and about eighty men. There being a plain track to the Arkansas river, they did very well thus far ; but from thence to the Cimarron, not a single trail was to be found, save the innumerable buffalo paths, with which these plains are furrowed, and which are exceedingly perplexing to the be- wildered prairie traveller. In a great many places which I have observed, they have aU the appearance of immense highways, over which entire armies would seem to have fre- quently passed. They generally lead from one watering place to another ; but as these reservoirs very often turn out to be dry, the thirsty traveller who follows them in search of water, is liable to constant disappointment. When Capt. Sublette's party entered this arid plain, it was parched with drought ; and they were doomed to wander about for seve- ral days, ^vith all the horrors of a death from tliirst staring them continually in the face. In this perilous situation, Capt. Smith resolved at last to pursue one of these seductive buffalo paths, in hopes it might lead to the margin of some stream or pond. He set out alone ; for besides the temerity which desperation always inspires, he had ever been a stranger to fear ; indeed, he was one of the most un- daunted spirits that had ever traversed the Rocky Mountains ; and if but one-half of what has been told of him be true, — of his bold enterprises — his perilous wanderings — MASSACRE OF CAFfAlN SMITH. 93 liis skirmishings with the savages — his hair- breadth escapes, etc. — he would surely be entitled to one of the most exalted seats in the Olympus of Prairie mythology. But, alas ! unfortunate Captain Smith ! after hav- ing so often dodged the arrrow and eluded the snare of tlie wily Mountain Indian, httle could he have thought, wliile jogging along under a scorching sun, that his bones were destined to bleach upon those arid sands! He had already wandered many miles away from his comrades, when, on turning over an eminence, his eyes were joyfully greeted with the appearance of a small stream meandering through the valley that spread before him. It was the Cmiarron. He hurried forward to slake the fire of his parched Ups — but, imagine his disappoint- ment, at finding in the channel only a bed of dry sand ! With liis hands, however, he soon scratched out a basin a foot or two deep, into wliich the water slowly oozed from the saturated sand. While with his head bent down, in the effort to quench his burn- ing thirst in the fountain, he was pierced by the arrows of a gang of Comanclies, Avho were lying in wait for him ! Yet he struggled bravely to the last ; and, as the Lidians them- selves have since related, killed two or three of their party before he was overpowered. Every kind of fatality seems to have at- tended this little caravan. Among other calamities, we also learned that a clerk in their company, named Minter, had been killed by 94 TEMERITY OF HUNTERS. a band of Pawnees, before they crossed the Arkansas. This, I beheve, is the only instance of loss of hfe among the traders while en- gaged in hunting : although the scarcity of accidents can hardly be said to be the result of prudence. There is not a day, from the time a caravan reaches the 'buffalo range,' that hunters do not commit some indiscretion, such as straying at a distance of five and even ten miles from the caravan, frequently alone, and seldom in bands of more than two or three together. In this state, they must fre- quently be spied by prowhng savages; so that the frequency of escape, under such cir- cumstances, must be partly attributed to the cowardice of the Lidians : indeed, generally speaking, the latter are very loth to charge upon even a single armed man, unless they can take him at a decided disadvantage. Therefore, it is at all times imprudent to fire at the first approach of Indians ; for, seeing their guns empty, the savages would charge upon them ; while very small bands of hun- ters have been known to keep large numbers of the enemy at bay, by presenting their rifles, but reserving their fire, till assistance was at hand. The companions of Capt. Smith, having descended upon the Cimarron at another point, appear to have remained ignorant of the terrible fate that had befallen him, until they were informed of the circumstances by some Mexican traders, who had ascertained the facts from the murderous savasres them- RECRUIT OF BREAD. 95 selves. Not long after, this band of Capt. Sublette very narrowly escaped a total destruc- tion. They had fallen in with that immense horde of Blackleet and Gros Ventres, with whom we afterwards met, and, as the traders were literally but a handful among their thou- sands, they fancied themselves for awhile in imminent peril of being virtually ' eaten up.' But as Capt. Sublette possessed considerable experience, he was at no loss how to deal with these treacherous savages; so that al- though the latter assumed a menacing atti- tude, he passed them without any serious molestation, and finally arrived at Santa Fe in safety. But to return to our Cibolero. He was de- sirous to sell us some provisions, which, by the by, were welcome enough ; for most of the company were out of bread, and meat was becoming very scarce, having seen but few buffalo since our first encounter Avith the Indians on the Cimarron. Our visitor soon retired to his camp hard by, and, with several of his comrades, afterwards brought us an abundance of dry buffalo beef, and some bags of coarse oven-toasted loaves, a kind of hard bread, much used by Mexican travel- lers. It is prepared by opening the ordinary leavened rolls, and toasting them brown in an oven. Though exceedingly hard and insipid while dry, it becomes not only soft but pala- table when soaked in water — or better still in * hot coffee.' But what we procured on this occasion was unusually stale and coarse, pre- 96 CIBOLEROS MEAT-CURING. pared expressly for barter with the Coman- ches, in case they should meet any : yet bread was bread, emphatically, with us just then. A word concerning the Ciboleros may not be altogether uninteresting. Every year, large parties of New-Mexicans, some provided with mules and asses, others with carretas or truckle-carts and oxen, drive out into these prairies to procure a supply of buffalo beef for their famihes. They hunt, like the wild Indians, chiefly on horseback, and with bow and arrow, or lance, with which they soon load their carts and mules. They find no difficulty in curing their meat even in mid- summer, by slicmg it thin and spreading or suspending it in the sun ; or, if in haste, it is slightly barbecued. During the curing opera- tion they often follow the Indian practice of beating or kneading the slices with their feet, wliich they contend contributes to its preser- vation. Here the extraordinary purity of the atmos- phere is remarkably exemplified. The cara- vans cure meat in the same simple manner, except the process of kneading. A line is stretched from corner to corner on each side of a wagon-body, and strung Avith slices of beef, which remains from day to day till it is sufficiently cured to be stacked away. This is done without salt, and yet it very rarely putrifies. Besides, as blow-flies are un- known here, there is nothing to favor putre- faction. While speaking of flies, I might THE ROUND MOUND. 97 as well remark, that, after passing beyond the region of the tall grass, between the JNlissouri frontier and Arkansas river, the horse-fly also is unknown. Judging from the prairies on our border, we had naturally an- ticipated a great deal of mischief from these brute-torineutors ; in which wc were very agreeably disappointed. But I have not yet done with the meat- curing operations. While in the midst of the buffalo range, travellers usually take the pre- caution of laying up a supply of beef for ex- igencies in the absence of the ' prairie cattle.' We had somewhat neglected this provision in time of abundance, by which we had come near being reduced to extremities. Caravans some- times lie by a day or two to provide a supply of meat ; when numbers of buffalo are slaugh- tered, and the flesh 'jerked,' or shghtly barbe- cued, by placing it upon a scaffold over a fire. The same method is resorted to by Mexi- cans when the weather is too damp or cloudy for the meat to dry in the open air. We were now approaching the 'Round Mound,' a beautiful round-topped cone, rising nearly a thousand feet above the level of the plain by which it is for the most part sur- rounded. We were yet at least three miles from this mound, when a party set out on foot to ascend it, in order to get a view of the sur- rounding country. They felt confident it was but half a mile off^ — at most, three-quarters ; but finding the distance so much greater than they had anticipated, many began to lag be- 98 ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA. hind, and soon rejoined the wagons. The optical illusions occasioned by the rarified and transparent atmosphere of these elevated plains, are often truly remarkable, affording another exemplification of its purity. One would almost fancy himself looking through a spy-glass, for objects frequently appear at scarce one-fourth of their real distance — ^fre- quently much magnified, and more especially elevated. I have often seen flocks of ante- lopes mistaken for droves of elks or wild hor- ses, and when at a great distance, even for horsemen ; whereby frequent alarms are oc- casioned. I have also known tufts of grass or weeds, or mere buffalo bones scattered on the prairies, to stretch upward to the height of several feet, so as to present the appearance of so many human beings. Ravens in the same way are not unfrequently taken for In- dians, as well as for buffalo ; and a herd of the latter upon a distant plain often appear so increased in bulk that they would be mis- taken by the inexperienced for a grove of trees. This is usually attended with a con- tinual waving and looming, which often so writhe and distort distant objects as to rendei them too indistinct to be discriminated. The illusion seems to be occasioned by gaseous vapors rising from the ground while the beaming rays of the sun are darting upon it. But the most curious, and at the same timr the most perplexing phenomenon, occasioned by optical deception, is the mirage, or, as fa- miliarly called upon the Prairies, the * false MIRAGE OR ' FALSE PONDS.' 99 ponds.' Even the experienced traveller is often deceived by these upon the arid plains, where a disappointment is most severely felt. The thirsty wayfarer, after jogging for hours under a burning sky, at length espies a pond — yes, it must be water — it looks too natural for him to be mistaken, lie quickens his pace, en- joying in anticipation the pleasure of a re- freshing draught : but lo ! as he approacJies, it recedes or entirely disappears ; and when upon its apparent site, he is ready to doubt his own vision — he finds but a parched plain un- der liis feet. It is not until he has been thus a dozen times deceived, that he is wiUing to relinquish the pursuit : and then, perhaps, when he really does see a pond, he will pass it unexamined, for fear of another disappoint- ment. The philosophy of these ' false ponds' seems generally not well understood. They have usually been attributed to refraction^ by wliich a section of the bordering sky would appear below the horizon : but there can be no doubt that they are the effect of reflection, upon a gas emanating perhaps from the sun-scorched earth and vegetable matter. Or it may be that a surcharge of carbonic acid, precipitated upon the flats and sinks of those plains, by the action of the sun, produces the eflect. At least, it appears of sufficient density, when viewed very obliquely, to reflect the objects beyond : and thus the opposite sky being re- flected in the pond of gas, gives the appear- ance of water. As a proof that it is the eflect 100 EXTENSIVE VIEW. of reflection, I have often observed the dis- tant trees and hilly protuberances Avhich pro- ject above the horizon beyond, distinctly in- verted in the ' pond ;' whereas, were it the result of refraction, these would appear erect, only cast below the surface. Indeed, many are the singular atmospheric phenomena ob- servable upon the plahis, wliich would afford a field of interesting research for the curious natural philosopher. At last, some of the most persevering of our adventurers succeeded in ascending the summit of the Round Mound, which com- mands a full and advantageous view of the surrounding country, in some dhections to the distance of a hundred miles or more. Looking southward a varied country is seen, of hills, plains, mounds, and sandy undula- tions ; but on the whole northern side, exten- sive plains spread out, studded occasionally with variegated peaks and ridges. Far be- yond these, to the north-westward, and low in the horizon a silvery stripe appears upon an azure base, resembling a Ust of chalk- white clouds. This is the perennially snow- capped summit of the eastern spur of the Rocky Mountains. These immense bordering plains, and even the hills with which they are interspersed, are wholly destitute of timber, except a chance scattering tree upon the margins of the bluffs and ravines, which but scantily serves to varie- gate the landscape. Not even a buffalo was now to be seen to relieve the dull monotony DECREASE OP THE BUFFALO. 101 of the scene ; although at some seasons (and particularly in the fall) these prairies are liter- ally strewed with herds of this animal. Then, thousands and tens of thousands' might at times be seen from this eminence. But the buffalo is a migratory animal, and even in the midst of the Prairies where they are generally so very abundant, we sometimes travel for days without seeing a single one ; though no signs of hunter or Lidian can be discovered. To say the truth, however, I have never seen them anywhere upon the Prairies so abun- dant as some travellers have represented — in dense masses, darkening the whole country. I have only found them in scattered herds, of a few scores, hundreds, or sometimes thou- sands in each, and where in the greatest numbers, dispersed far and wide; but with large intervals between. Yet they are very sensibly and rapidly decreasing. There is a current notion that the whites frighten them away ; but, I would ask, where do they go to ? To be sure, to use a hunter's phrase, they ^ frighten a few out of their skins ;' yet for every one killed by the whites, more than a hundred, perhaps a thousand, fall by the hands of the savages. From these, however, there is truly ' nowhere to flee ;' for they follow them wheresoever they go : while the poor brutes instinctively learn to avoid the fixed establishments, and, to some degree, the regu- lar travelling routes of the whites. As the caravan was passing under the northern base of the Round Mound, it pre- 102 ORDER OF MARCH 'FORMING. sented a very fine and imposing spectacle to those who were upon its summit. The wagons marched slowly in four parallel col- umns, but in broken fines, often at interv^als of many rods between. The unceasing ' crack, crack,' of the wagoners' Avhips, resembfing the frequent reports of distant guns, almost made one believe that a skirmish was actually tak- ing place between two hostile parties : and a hostile engagement it virtually was to the poor brutes, at least ; for the merciless application of the whip would sometimes make the blood spirt from their sides — and that often with- out any apparent motive of the wanton carret- tieri, other than to amuse themselves with the flourishing and loud popping of their lashes \ The rear wagons are usually left without a guard ; for aU the loose horsemen incfine to be ahead, where they are to be seen moving in scattered groups, sometimes a nnle or more in advance. As our camp was pitched but a mile west of the Round Mound, those who lingered upon its summit could have an interesting view of the evolutions of ' forming' the wag- ons, in which the drivers by this time had be- come very expert. When marching four abrcast, the two exterior lines spread out and then meet at the front angle ; while the two inner fines keep close together until they reach the point of the rear angle, when they wheel suddenly out and close with the hinder ends of the other two ■ thus systematically concluding a right-lined quadrangle, with a gap left at the rear corner for the introduction of the animals. UPROARIOUS STAMPEDE. 103 Our encampment was in a beautiful plain, but without water, of which, however, we had had a good supply at noon. Our cattle, as was the usual custom, after having grazed without for a few hours, were now shut up in the pen of the wagons. Our men were all wrapt in peaceful slumber, except the guard, who kept their silent watch around the en- campment ; when all of a sudden, about the ominous hour of midnight, a tremendous up- roar was heard, which caused every man to start in terror from his blanket couch, with arms in hand. Some animal, it appeared, had taken fright at a dog, and by a sudden start, set all around him in violent motion : the panic spread simultaneously throughout the pen ; and a scene of rattle, clash, and 'lumbering,' ensued, which far surpassed everything we had yet witnessed. A gene- ral 'stampede' [estampida, as the Mexicans say) was the result. Notwithstanding the wagons were tightly bound together, wheel to wheel, with ropes or chains, and several stretched across the gaps at the corners of the corral, the oxen soon burst their way out ; and though mostly yoked in pairs, they went scampering over the plains, as though Tam O'Shanter's 'cutty-sark' Nannie had been at their tails. All attempts to stop them were vain ; for it would require ' Auld Clootie' him- self to check the headw^ay of a drove of oxen, when once thoroughly frightened. Early the following morning we made active exertions to get up a sufficient quantity of teams to start 104 WAGON REPAIRS. the caravan. At Rock Creek, a distance of six or seven miles, v^e were joined by those Avho had gone in pursuit of the stock. All the oxen were found, except some half a dozen, which were never recovered. No mules were lost : a few that had broken loose were speedily retaken. The fact is, that though mules are generally easiest scared, oxen are decidedly the worst when once started. The principal advantage of the latter in this respect, is, that Indians have but little induce- ment to steal them, and therefore few attempts would be made upon a caravan of oxen. We were now entering a region of rough, and in some places, rocky road, as the streams which intervene from tliis to the mountains are all bordered with fine sandstone. These rugged passes acted very severely upon our wagons, as the wheels were by this time be- coming loose and ^ shackhng,' from the shrink of the wood, occasioned by the extreme dry- ness and rarity of this elevated atmosphere. The spokes of some were beginning to reel in the hubs, so that it became necessary to brace them with ' false spokes,' firmly bound with ' buffalo tug.' On some occasions, the wagon tires have become so loose upon the felloes as to tumble off' while travelling. The most effective mode of tightening slackened tires (at least that most practised on the plains, as there is rarely a portable forge in company), is by driving strips of hoop-iron around be- tween the tire and felloe — simple wedges of wood are sometimes made to supply the place RIO COLORADO. 105 of iron. During halts I have seen a dozen wheels being repahed at the same time, oc- casioning such a chtter-clatter of hammers, that one would almost fancy himself in a ship-yard. i Emerging from this region of asperities, we soon passed the ' Point of Rocks,' as a dimi- nutive 'spur' projecting from the north is called, at the foot of which springs a charming little fount of water. This is but thirty or forty miles from the principal mountains, along whose border, similar detached ridges and hills are frequently to be seen. The next day, having descended from the table plain, we reached the principal branch of the Ca- nadian river, which is here but a rippling brook, hardly a dozen paces in width, though eighty miles from its source in the mountains to the north. The bottom being of solid rock, this ford is appropriately called by the cibo- leros, el Vado de Piedras. The banks are very low and easy to ascend. The stream is called Rio Colorado by the Mexicans, and is known among Americans by its literal translation of Red River. This circumstance perhaps gave rise to the behef that it was the head branch of our main stream of this name :^ but the * Previous to the year 1820, this ' Rio Colorado'' seems universajiy to have been considered as the principal source of Red River ; but in the expedition of Maj. Long, during that year, he discovered this to be the head branch of the Canadian. The discovery cost him somewhat dearly too ; for striking a branch of the Colorado near the Mountains, he followed down its course, believing it to be of the main Red River. He was not fully imdeceived till he arrived at its junction with the Arkansas ; whereby he failed in a principal object of the expedition — the exploration of the true sources of « Red River of Natchitoches ' 106 MEXICAN ESCORT. nearest waters of the legitimate ' Red River of A^atchitoches,' are still a hundred miles to the south of this road. In descending to the Rio Colorado, we met a dozen or more of our countrymen from Taos, to which town (sixty or seventy miles distant) there is a direct but rugged route across the mountains. It was a joyous en- counter, for among them we found some of our old acquaintances whom we had not seen for many years. During our boyhood we had ' spelt' together in the same country school, and roamed the wild woods with many a childish glee. They turned about with us, and the remainder of our march was passed in answering their inquiries after their rela- tives and friends in the United States. Before reaching the stream, we encountered another party of visitors, being chiefly cus- tom-house agents or clerks, who, accompanied by a military escort, had come out to guard the caravan to the Capital. The ostensible purpose of this escort was to prevent smug- gling,— a company of troops being thus dis- patched every year, with strict injunctions to watch the caravans. This custom appear? since to have nearly grown out of use : nnd well might it be discontinued altogethtT, ibi any one disposed to smuggle would find no difficulty in securing the services of these preventive guards, who, for a trifling douceur. would prove very efficient auxiliaries, rathci thnn obstacles to the success of any such de- igns. As we were forming in the valley op- THE DISORGANIZATION. 107 posite where the escort was encamped, Col. Vizcarra, the commandant, honored us with a sahite from his artillery, which was promptly- responded to by oar little cannon. Considering ourselves at last out of danger of Indian hostilities (although still nearly a hundred and forty miles from Santa Fe) ; and not unwilling to give our ' guard' as much trouble as possible, we abandoned the organi- zation of our caravan a few miles beyond the Colorado ; its members wending their way to the Capital in almost as many detached parties as there were proprietors. The road from this to San Miguel (a town nearly a hundred miles distant), leads in a southwestern direction along the base of, and almost parallel with, that spur of snow-clad mountains, which has already been mentioned, bearing down east of the Rio del Norte. Tills region is particularly celebrated for violent showers, hail-storms, and frightful thunder-gusts. The sudden coohng and con- traction of the atmosphere which follows these falls of rain, very often reverses the car- rent of the lower stratum of air ; so that a cloud which has just ceased pouring its coji- tents and been wafted away, is in a few min- utes brought back, and drenches the traveller with another torrent. I was deeply impress- ed with a scene I witnessed in the summer of 1832, about two days' journey beyond the Colorado, which I may be excused for allud- ing to in this connection. We were encamp- ed at noon, when a nmrky cloud issued from lOS A THUNDERBOLT. behind the mountains, and, after hovering over us for a few minutes, gave vent to one of those tremendous peals of thunder which seem pecuUar to those regions, making the elements tremble, and leaving us so stunned and confounded that some seconds elapsed be- fore each man was able to convince himself that he had not been struck by hghtning. A sulphureous stench filled the atmosphere ; but the thunderbolt had skipped over the wagons and hghted upon the cahallada, wliich was grazhig hard by ; some of which were after- ward seen stretched upon the plain. It was not a little singular to find an ox lying hfeless from the stroke, while liis mate stood unin- jured by his side, and under the same yoke. Some distance beyond the Colorado, a party of about a dozen (which I joined) left the wagons to go ahead to Santa Fe. Fifty miles beyond the main branch of this stream we passed the last of the Canadian waters, known to foreigners as the MoraM From thence to the Galliiias,^ the first of the Rio del Norte waters, the road stretches over an ele\^ted plain, unobstructed by any moun- tainous ridge. At Galhnas creek, we found * As mora means mulberry, and this fruit is to be found at the mouth of this stream, one would suppose that it had acquired its name from that fact, did not the Mexicans always call it Rw de lo de Mora, thus leaving it to be inferred that" the name had originated from some individual called Mora, who had settled upon it. t Called Rio de lo^ Gallinas by Mexicans. Though gallina if literally h/:n, it is here also applied to the turkey (usually with a ♦ surname,' as gallina de la tierra). It is therefore Turkey river FIRST SETTLEMENT. 109 a large flock of sheep grazing upon the adja- cent plahi ; while a httle hovel at the foot of a chff showed it to be a rancho. A swarthy ranchero soon made his appearance, from whom we procured a treat of goat's milk, with some dirty ewe's milk ' curdle cheese' to supply the place of bread. Some twenty mUes from this place we en- tered San Miguel, the first settlement of any note upon our route. This consists of irregu- lar clusters of mud- wall huts, and is situated in the fertile valley of Rio Pecos, a silvery ht- tle river wliich ripples from the snowy moun- tains of Santa Fe — from which city this fron- tier \T.l]age is nearly fifty miles to the south- east. The road makes this great southern bend, to find a passway through the broken extremity of the spur of mountains before al- luded to, which from this point south is cut up into detached ridges and table plains. This mountain section of the road, even in its pre- sent unimproved condition, presents but few difficult passes, and might, with httle labor, be put in good order. A few miles before reaching the city, the road again emerges into an open plain. As- cending a table ridge, we spied in an extend- ed valley to the northwest, occasional groups of trees, skirted with verdant corn and wheat fields, with here and there a square block- hke protuberance reared in the midst. A httle further, and just ahead of us to the north, irregidar clusters of the same opened to our view. " Oh, we are approaching the sub- 10 110 ARRIVAL OF THE CARAVAN. urbs !" thought I, on perceiving the cornfields, and what I supposed to be brick-kilns scatter- ed in every direction. These and other ob- servations of the same nature becoming audi- ble, a friend at my elbow said, " It is true those are heaps of unburnt bricks, neverthe- less they are houses — this is the city of Santa Fe." Five or six days after our arrival, the cara- van at last hove in sight, and wagon after wagon was seen pouring down the last dech- vity at about a miles distance from the city. To judge from the clamorous rejoicings of the men, and the state of agreeable excite- ment which the muleteers seemed to be laboring under, the spectacle must have been as new to them as it had been to me. It was truly a scene for the artist's pencil to revel in. Even the animals seemed to participate in the humor of their riders, Avho grew more and more merry and obstreperous as they descend- ed towards the city. I doubt, in short, whe- ther the first sight of the walls of Jerusalem were beheld by the crusaders with much more tumultuous and soul-enrapturing joy. The arrival produced a great deal of bustle and excitement among the natives. '^ Los Americanos ! " — ' ' Los carros ! " — " La entrada de Ja caravana !^^ were to be heard in every direction ; and crowds of women and boys flocked around to see the new-comers ; while crowds of leperos hung about as usual to see what they could pilfer. The wagoners were by no means free from excitement on this oc- TOILET AND RECREATIONS. Ill casion. Liformed of the 'ordeal' they had to pass, they had spent tlie previous morning in ' rubbing up ;' and now they were prepared, with clean faces, sleek combed hair, and their choicest Sunday suit, to meet the ' fair eyes ' of gUstening black that were sure to stare at them as they passed. There was yet another preparation to be made in order to ' show oft^' to advantage. Each wagoner must tie a bran new ' cracker' to the lash of his whip ; for, on driving through the streets and the pfca j:?^/^- lica^ every one strives to out\de his comrades in the dexterity with which he flourishes this favorite badge of his authority. Our wagons were soon discharged in the ware-rooms of the Custom-house ; and a few days' leisure bemg now at our disposal, we had time to take that recreation which a fa- tiguing journey of ten weeks had rendered so necessary. The Avagoners, and many of the traders, particularly the notices, flocked to the numerous fandangoes, which are regularly kept up after the arrival of a caravan. But the merchants generally were anxiously and actively engaged in their affairs — striving who should first get his goods out of the custom- house, and obtain a chance at the ' hard chink' of the numerous country dealers, who annu- ally resort to the capital on these occasions. Now comes the harvest for those idle in- terpreters, who make a business of ' passing goods,' as they term it; for as but a small por- tion of the traders are able to write the Span- ish language, they are obhged to employ 112 CUSTOM-HOUSE ARRANGEMENTS. these legal go-betweens, who pledge them- selves, for a stipulated fee, to make the ' ar- rangements,' and translate the rtianifiestos (that is, bills of merchandise to be manifested at the custom-house), and to act the part of interpreters throughout. The inspection ensues, but this is rarely carried on with rigid adherence to rules ; for an 'actuated sympathy' for the merchants, and a ' specific desire' to promote the trade, cause the inspector to open a few of such packages only, as will exhibit the least dis- crepancy with the manifest. The derechos de arancel (tariff imposts) of Mexico are extremely oppressive, averaging about a hundred per cent, upon the United States' cost of an ordinary ' Santa Fe assort- ment.' Those on cotton textures are particu- larly so. According to the Arancel of 1837 (and it was still heavier before), all plain-wove cottons, whether white or printed, pay twelve and a half cents duty per vara, besides the derccho de consumo (consumption dut}^), which ])rings it up to at least fifteen. But it is scarcely necessary to add that there are be- lieved to be very few ports in the Repubhc at which these rigid exactions are strictly exe- cuted. An ' arrangement'-'— a compromise is expected, in which the officers are sure at least to provide for themselves. At some ports, a custom has been said to prevail, of dividing the legal duties into three equal parts : one for the officers — a second for the merchants — the other for the government. ARMUO'S IMPOST. 113 For a few years, Gov. Armijo of Santa Fe, established a tariff of his own, entirely arbi- trary,— exacting five hundred dollars for each wagon-load, whether large or small — of fine or coarse goods ! Of course tins was very advantageous to such traders as had large wagons and costly assortments, wliile it was no less onerous to those with smaller vehicles or coarse hea\y goods. As might have been anticipated, the traders soon took to conveying then* merchandise only in the largest wagons, drawn by ten or twelve mules, and omitting the coarser and more weighty articles of trade. This caused the governor to return to an ad valor ein system, though still Avithout re- gard to the Arancel general of the nation. How much of these duties found their way into the pubhc treasury, I will not venture to assert. The arrival of a caravan at Santa Fe changes the aspect of the place at once. In- stead of the idleness and stagnation which its streets exhibited before, one now sees every- where the bustle, noise and activity of a lively market town. As the Mexicans very rarely speak Enghsh, the negotiations are mostly conducted in Spanish. Taking the circuit of the stores, I found they usually contained general assortments, much hke those to be met with in the retail variety stores of the west. The stocks of the inexperienced merchants are apt to abound in unsalable goods — mulas, as the Mexicans figuratively term them. 10* 114 SANTA FE ASSORTMENTS. Although a fair variety of dry goods, silks, hardware, ^-c, is to be found in this mar- ket, domestic cottons, both bleached and brown, constitute the great staple, of which nearly equal quantities ought to enter into a ' Santa Fe assortment' The demand for these goods is such that at least one half of our stocks of merchandise is made up of them. HowcA^er, although they afford a greater nominal per centum than many other articles, the profits are reduced by their freight and hea^y duty. In all the Southern markets, where they enter into competition, there is a decided preference given to the American manufactures over the British, as the former are more heavy and durable. The demand for calicoes is also considerable, but this kind of goods affords much less profit. The quantity in an assortment should be about equal to half that of domestics. Cot- ton velvets, and driUings (whether bleached, brown or blue, and especially the latter), have also been in much request. But all the coarser cotton goods, whether shirtings, cah- coes or drilHngs, &c., were prohibited by the Arancel of 1837 ; and still continue to be, with some modifications. CHAPTER VI. Sketches of the Early History of Santa Fe — First Explorations — Why called New Mexico — Memorial of Oiiate — His Colony — Captain Leyva's prior Settlement — Singular Stipulations of Oiiate — Incentives presented by the Crown to Colonizers — Enormities of Spanish Conquerors — Progress of the new Colony— Cruel Labors of the Aborigines in the mines — Re- volt of the Indians in 1680 — Massacre of the Spaniards — Santa Fe Besieged — Battles — Remaining Spanish Population finally evacuate the Province — Paso del Norte — Inhuman Murder of a Spanish Priest — Final Recovery of the Country — Insurrec- tion of 1837 — A Prophecy — Shocking Massacre of the Gover- nor and other distinguished Characters — American Mer- chants, and Neglect of our Government — Governor Armijo : his Intrigues and Success — Second Gathering of Insurgents and their final Defeat. Having resided for nearly nine years in Northern Mexico, and enjoyed opportunities for observation which do not always fall to the lot of a trader, it has occurred to nie that a few sketches of the country — the first settle- ments— the early, as well as more recent struo^ofles with the aborio^inal inhabitants — their traditions and antiquities — together with some account of the manners and customs of the people, etc., would not be altogether unacceptable to the reader. The dearth of information which has hitherto prevailed on this subject, is my best apology for travelling 116 ANTIQUITY OF SANTA Vt. out of my immediate tracks and trespassing as it were upon the department of the regular historian. The province of New Mexico, of which Santa Fe, the capital, was one of the first establishments, dates among the earliest settlements made in America. By some traditions it is related that a small band of adventurers proceeded thus far north shortly after the capture of the city of Mexico by Hernan Cortes. The historian Mariana speaks of some attempts having been made, during the career of this renowned chieftain m America, to conquer and take possession of these regions. This, however, is somewhat doubtful; for it is hardly probable that the Spaniards, with all their mania for gold, would have pushed their conquests two thousand miles into the interior at so early a day, tra- versing the settlements of hostile savages, and leaving unexplored intermediate regions, not only more beautiful, but far more productive of the precious metals. Herrera, Avriting of the events of 1550, mentions New Mexico as a known province lying north of New Gahcia, though as yet only inhabited by the aborigines. It was probably called New Mexico from the resemblance of its inhabitants to those of the city of Mexico and its environs. They appear to have assi- milated in their habits, their agriculture, their manufactures and their houses ; wliile those of the intermediate country (the Chichimecos, &c.) were in a much nider state, leading a FIRST COLONY. 117 more wandering life, and possessing much less knowledge of agriculture, arts, etc. The only paper found m the archives at Santa Fe which gives any clue to the first settlement of New Mexico, is the memorial of one Don Juan de Onate, a citizen of Zaca- tecas, dated September 21, 1595, of which I have been furnished with a copy through the pohteness of Don Guadalupe Sliranda, Secre- tary of State at Santa Fe. This petition prayed for the permission and assistance of the vice-regal government at Mexico, to esta- bhsh a colony on the Rio del Norte in the re- gion aheady known as New Mexico ; which having been granted, it was carried into effect, as I infer from the documents, duruig the fol- lowing spring. This appears to have been the first legal colony estabhshed in the province ; yet we gather from different clauses in Ofiate's me- morial, that an adventurer known as Captain Francisco de Leyva BoniUo had previously entered the province with some followers, without the king's permission, whom Of] ate was authorized to arrest and punish. Some historians insist that New Mexico was first visited by a few missionaries in 1581 ; and there is a tradition in the country which fixes the first settlement in 1583 — both ha^diig refe- rence no doubt to the party of Leyva. Onate bound himself to take into New Mexico two hundred soldiers, and a sufficien- cy of pro\dsions for the first year's support of the colony ; with abundance of horses, black 118 MODEST DEMANDS. cattle, sheep, etc., as also merchandise, agricultural utensils, tools and materials for mechanics' purposes; and all at his own cost, or rather at the ultimate expense of the colonists. This adventurer, in the course of his me- morial, also stipulates for some extraordinary proA^sions on the part of the King : such as, artillery and other arms, ammunitions, etc. — six priests, with a full complement of books, ornaments and church accoutrements — a loan of $20,000 from the royal treasury — a grant of thirty leagues square of land wheresoever he might choose to select it, with all the vas- sals (Indians) residing upon it — ^his family to be ennobled, with the hereditary title of Mar- quis— the office of Governor, with the titles of Adelantado and the rank of Captain-gene- ral for four 'generations — a salary of 8,000 du- cats of Castile per annum — the privilege of working mines exempt from the usual crown- tax — permission to parcel out the aborigines among his officers and men; and, besides other favors to his brothers and relatives, to have " Indians recommended to their charge," which, in other words, was the privilege of making slaves of them to Avork in the mines — with many other distinctions, immunities and powers to himself, sufficient to establish him in an authority far more despotic than any modern monarch of Europe would ven- ture to assume. And altJiough these exorbi- tant demands were not all conceded, they go to demonstrate by what incentives of pecu- onate's memorial. 119 niary interest, as well as of honors, the Spanish monarchs sought the " descubmniento, paciji' cacion y conversion'' as they modestly termed it, of the poor aborigines of America. The memorial referred to is extremely lengthy, being encumbered with numerous marginal notes, each containing the decree of assent or dissent of the Viceroy. All this, however, serves rather to illustrate the an- cient manners and customs of the Spaniards in those feudal days — the formahties observed in undertaking an exploring . and christianiz- ing enterprise — than to afford any historical data of the expedition. In every part of this singular document there may be traced evidences of that sordid lust for gold and power, which so disgraced all the Spanish conquests in America ; and that rehgious fanaticism — that crusading spirit, which martyrized so many thousands of the aborigines of tlie New World under Spanish authorit}^ But to return to Onate : In one article, this adventurer, or contractor, or whatever else we may choose to call him, inquires, " In case the natives are uuAvilhng to come quietly to the acknowledgment of the true Christian faith, and hsten to the evangelical word, and give obedience to the king our sovereign, what shall be done wdth them ? that we may pro- ceed according to the laws of the Cathohc Church, and the ordinances of his Majesty. And what tributes, that they may be chris- tianly borne, shall be imposed upon them, as 120 SPANISH CHKISTIANIZATION. well tor the crown as for the adventurers ?" — showing that these 'missionaries' (as they were wont to call themselves) not only rob- bed the Indians of their country and treasure, and made menial slaves of them, but exacted tribute beside — promulgated the gospel at the point of the bayonet, and administered bap- tism by force of arms — compeUing them to acknowledge the ' apostolic Roman Cathohc faith,' of which they had not the shghtest idea. Cervantes, who wrote his Don Quixote about this time, no doubt intended to make a hit at this cruel sphit of rehgious bigotry, by making his hero command his captives to ac- knowledge the superiority of liis Dulcinea's beauty over that of all others ; and when they protest that they have never seen her, he de- clares, that " the importance consists in this — that without seeing her, you have it to believe, confess, affirm, swear and defend." It is much to be regretted that there are no records to be found of the wars and massa- cres, the numberless incidents and wild ad- ventures which one would presume to have occurred during the first three-quarters of a century of the colonization of New Mexico. It is probable, however, that, as the aborigi- nes seem to have been at first of a re- markably pacific and docile character, the conqueror met Avith but little difficulty in carrying out his original plans of settlement. Quietly acquiescing in both the civil and re- ligious authority of the invaders, the yoke Avas easily riveted upon them, as they had neither HIDDEN MINES. 121 tntelligence nor spirit to resist, until goaded to desperation. The colony had progressed very rapidly, the settlements extending into ^very quarter of the territory — villages, and even towns of considerable importance were reared in re- mote sections ; of which there now remain but the ruins, with scarce a tradition to tell the fate of the once flourishing population. Many valuable mines were discovered and worked, as tradition relates, the locations of which have been lost, or (as the Mexicans say) concealed by the Indians, in order to prevent a repetition of the brutal outrages they had suffered in them. Whether tliis was the case or not, they surely had cause enough for wishing to conceal those with which they were acquainted ; for in these very mines they had been forced to perform, under the lash, the most laborious tasks, till human strength could endure no more. Even then, perhaps, they would not have ventured upon resistance, but for the instigations of an eloquent warrior from a distant tnbe, who pretended to have inherited the power of Montezuma, of whose subjects all these In- dians, even to the present day, consider them- selves the descendants. Tecumseh-like, our hero united the different tribes, and laid the plan of a conspiracy and general massacre of their oppressors; declaring that all who did not enter into the plot, should share the fate of the Spaniards. I have been furnished, through the kindness of the Secretary of 11 122 SAVAGE CONSPIRACV. State before mentioned, with an account of this insurrection and consequent mas- sacre of the Spanish population, taken from the journal t)f Don Antonio de Otermin, governor and commandant at the time, which was preserved in the pubhc archives at Santa Fe. It appears that the night of the 13th of Au- gust, 1680, was the time fixed for a general insurrection of all the tribes and Pueblos.^ At a stated hour the massacre of the Spanish population was to commence. Every soul was to be butchered without distinction of sex or age — with the exception of such young and handsome females as they might wish to preserve for wives! Although this conspiracy had evidently been in agitation for a great v/hile, such strict secrecy had been maintained, that nothing was known or even suspected, till a few days before the appointed time. It is said that not a single woman was let into the secret, for fear of endangering the success of the cause ; but it was finally dis- closed by tvvo Indian chiefs themselves to the governor ; and about the same time informa- tion of the conspiracy was received from some curates and officers of Taos. Gov. Otermin, seeing the perilous situation of the country, lost no time in dispatching general orders for gathering the people of the south into the Pueblo of Isleta, where the Ueutenant-governor was stationed, and those * A general term for all the Cat/wlic Indians of N. Mexico, and their vulages. GENERAL OUTBREAK. 123 of the north and adjacent districts into Santa Fe. A considerable number collected in the fortifications of Isleta, and many famihes from the smToundmg jurisdictions were able to reach the capital; yet great numbers were massacred on the way ; for the Indians, per- ceiving their plot discovered, did not await the appointed time, but immediately commenced their work of destruction. General hostilities ha\ing commenced, eve- ry possible preparation was made for a vigorous defence of the capital. The population of the suburbs had orders to remove to the centre, and the streets were all barricaded. On the evening of the 10th two soldiers arrived from Taos, having Avith much difficulty escaped the vigilance of the Indians. They brought in- telhgence that the Pueblos of Taos had all risen ; and that on arriving at La Canada, they had found the Spaniards well fortified, although a great number of them had been assassinated in the vicinity. The governor now sent out a detachment of troops to re- connoitre, instructing them to bring away the citizens who remained at La Canada. They returned on the 12th, with the painful infor- mation that they had found many dead bodies on their way — that the temples had been plundered, and all the stock driven off from the ranchos. The massacre of the Spaniards in many neighboring Pueblos, was now unreservedly avovred by the Indians themselves ; and as those who remained in Santa Fe appeared in 124 SIEGE OF SANIA F£. the most imminent danger, the government buildings were converted into a fortiiication. By this time two fliendly Indians who had been dispatched in the direction of Gahsteo, came in with the inteUigence that 500 war- riors of the tribe called Tagaos,^ were march- ing towards the cit}^, being G\ei\ then only about a league distant. By conversing with the enemy the spies had been able to ascer- tain their temper and thek projects. They seemed confident of success — " for the God of the Christians is dead," said they, " but our god, which is the sun, never dies;" adding that they were only waiting the arrival of the Teguas,] Taosas and Apaches, in order to finish their work of extermination. Next morning the savages were seen ap- proaching from the south. On their arrival they took up their quarters in the deserted houses of the suburbs, with the view of wait- ing for their expected alHes, before they laid siege to the city. A parley was soon after- wards held with the chief leaders, who told tlie Spaniards that they had brought two crosses, of which they might have their choice: one was red, denoting war , the other was white and professed peace, on the condition of their immediately evacuating the province. The governor strove to conciliate them by of- fering to pardon all the crimes they had com- • The Pecos anil several other populous Piceblossto the south- wdid of Santa Fe were Tagnoa. * These embraced nearly all the Pueblos between Santa Fe and Taos. DESPERATE BAITLES. 125 niitted, pfo^-idecl they would be <;^ood Chris- tians and loyal subjects thereaf(er. But the Indians only made sport of him and laughed heartily at his propositions. He then sent a detachment to dislodge them ; but was event- ually obliged to turn out in person, with all the efficient men he had. The battle con- tinued the whole day, during which a great number of Indians and some Spaniards were killed. But late m the evening, the Teguas, Taosas and others, were seen pouring down upon the city from the north, when the troops had to abandon the advantages they had gained, and fly to the defence of the fortifica- tions. The siege had now continued for nine days, during which the force of the Indians had constantly been on the increase'. Within the last forty-eight hours they had entirely deprived the city of water by turning off the stream which had hitherto supplied it ; so that the horses and other stock were dying of thirst. The want of water and pro\isions becoming more and more insupportable every moment, and seeing no chance of rescue or escape, Governor Otermin resolved to make a sortie the next morning, and die with sword in hand, rather than perish so miserably for want of supphes. At sunrise he made a des- perate charge upon the enemy, whom, not- withstanding the inferiority of his forces, he was soon able to dislodge. Their ranks be- coming entirely disordered, more than three hundred were slain, and an abundance of 11* [26 i^ETKLAJ- or Ti.it: ispamards. booty taken, with forty-seven prisoners, who, after some exanimation as to the origin of the conspiracy, were all shot. The Spaniards, according to their account of the affair, only had four or five men killed, although a consi- derable number were wounded — the governor among the rest. The city of Santa Fe, notwithstanding a remaining population of at least a thousand souls, could not muster above a hundred able- bodied men to oppose the multitude that be- set them, which had now increased to about three thousand. Therefore Governor Oter- min, Avith tlie advice of the most intelligent citizens in the place, resolved to abandon tlie city. On the following day (August 21), they accordingly set out, the greater portion £ifoot, carr}'ing their 6wn pro\isions ; as there were scarcely animals enough for the wounded. Their march was undisturbed by the Indians,, who only watched their movements till they passed Isleta, when notliing more was seen of them. Here they found that tliose who had been stationed at Isleta had also retreated to the south a few days before. As they pass- ed through the country, they found the Pue- blos deserted by the Lidians, and the Spa- niards who pertained to them all massacred. They had not continued on their march for many days, when the caravan became utterly unable to proceed ; for they were not only without animals, but upon the point of starva- tion— the Indians having removed from the route everytliing th^t could have afforcJed RECONQUEST. 127 them relief. In tliis emergency, Otermin dis- patched an express to the Ueutenant-gover- nor. who was considerably in advance, and received from his party a few carts, with a supply of provisions. Towards the latter end of September, the Governor and his compa- nions in misfortune reached Paso del Norte (about 320 miles south of Santa Fe), where they found the advance party. The Governor immediately sent an account of the disaster to the Viceroy at Mexico, soli- citing reinforcements for the purpose of re- covering the lost province, but none arrived till the folio whig year. Meanwhile the refu- gees remained where they were, and founded, according to the best trachtions, the town of el Paso del Norte, so called in commemora- tion of this retreat, ox jmssage from the north. This is in an extensive and fertile valley, ovei which were scattered several Pueblos, all of whom remained friendly to the Spaniards, af- fording them an asylum with provisions and all the necessaries of hfe. The following year Governor Otermin was superseded by Don Diego de Vargas Zapata, Avho commenced the work of reconquering the country. This war lasted for ten years. In 1688, Don Pedro Petrir de Cruzate entered the province and reduced the Pueblo of Zia, which had been famous for its brave and ob- stinate resistance. In this attatk more than six hundred Indians of both sexes were slam, and a large number made prisoners. Among the latter was a warrior named Ojeda, cele- 123 INDIAN BARBARITY FEUDS. brated for valor and \dvacity, who spoke good Spanish. This Lidian gave a graphic ac- count of all that had transpired since the insurrection. He said that the Spaniards, and especially the priests, had been everywhere assassinated in the most barbarous manner ; and particu- larly alluded to the murder of the curate of Zia, whose fate had been singularly cruel. It appears that on the night of the outbreak, the unsuspecting 2'>ctdre being asleep in the con- vent, the Indians hauled him out, and having stripped him naked, mounted him upon a hog. Then lighting torches, they carried him in that state through the village, and several times around the church and cemetery, scourging him all the while most unmerci- fully ! Yet, not even contented with this, they placed the weak old man upon all-fours, and mounting upon his back by turns, spurred him through the streets, lashing him without cessation till he expired ! The discord which soon prevailed among the different Pueblos, greatly facihtated their second subjugation, which closely followed their emancipation. These petty feuds re- duced their numbers greatly, and many villa- ges were entirely anniliilated, of which his- tory only furnishes the names. In 1698, after the country had been for some time completely subdued again by the Spaniards, another irruption took place in which many Pueblos were concerned ; but through the energy of Governor Vargas Za- pata it was soon quelled. INSURRECTION OF 1837. 129 Since this last effort, the Indians have been' treatc^d with more humanity, each Pueblo be- ing allowed a league or two of land, and per- mitted to govern themselves. Their rancor- ous hatred for their conquerors, however, has never entirely subsided, yet no further out- break took place till :t8^'7, when they joined the Mexican insurgents in another bloody con- spiracy. Some time before these tragic events took place, it was prophesied among them that a new race was about to appear from the east, to redeem them from the Spa- nish yoke. I heard tliis spoken of several months before the subject of the insurrection had been seriously agitated. It is probable that the Pueblos built their hopes upon the Americans, as they seemed as yet to have no knowledge of the Texans. In fact, they have always appeared to look upon foreigners as a superior people, to whom they could speak freely of then discontent and their grievances. The truth is, the Pueblos, in every part of Mexico, have always been ripe for insurrec- tion. It is well known that the mass of the revolutionary chief Hidalgo's army was made up of this class of people. The immediate cause of the present outbreak in the north, however, had its origm among the Hispano- Mexican population. This grew chiefly out of the change of the federal government to that of Centrcdismo in 1835. A new governor, Col. Albino Perez, was then sent from the city of Mexico, to take charge of this isolated department ; which was not very agreeable 130 GATHERING OF THE RABBLE. to the 'sovereign people,' as they had previous- ly heen ruled chiefly by native governors. Yet while the new form of government was a novelty and did not affect the pecuniary interests of the people, it was acquiesced in ; but it was now found necessary for the sup- port of the new organization, to introduce a system of direct taxation, with which the peo- ple were wholly unacquainted ; and they would sooner have paid a dohlon through a tariff than a real in this way. Yet, although the conspiracy had been brewing for some time, no mdications of violence were demon- strated, until, on account of some misde- meanor, an alcalde was imprisoned by the Prcfecto of the northern district, Don Ramon Abreu. His honor of the staff was soon libe- rated by a mob ; an occurrence which seemed as a watchword for a general insurrection. These new movements took place about the beginning of August, 1837, and an immense rabble was soon gathered at La Canada (a town some twenty-five miles to the north of Santa Fe), among whom were to be found the principal warriors of all the Northern Pue- blos. Governor Perez issued orders to the alcaldes for the assembhng of the militia ; but all that could be collected together was about a hundred and fifty men, including the WMr- riors of the Pueblo of Santo Domingo. With this inadequate force, the Governor made an attempt to march from the capital, but was soon surprised by the insurgents who lay in ambush near La Caiiada : when his OAvn ATROCIOUS MASSACRE. 131 men fled to the enemy, leaving him and about twenty-five trusty friends to make their es- cape in the best way they could. Knowing that they would not be safe in Santa Fe, the refugees pursued then flight southward, but were soon overtaken by the exasperated Pue- blos ; when the Governor was chased back to the suburbs of the city, and savagely put to death. His body was then stripped and shockingly mangled : his head was carried as a trophy to the camp of the insurgents, who made a foot-ball of it among themselves. I had left the city the day before this sad catas- trophe took place, and beheld the Indians scouring the fields in pursuit of their victims, though I was yet ignorant of their barbarous designs. I saw them surround a house and drag from it the secretary of state, Jesus Maria Alarid. He and some other principal charac- ters (including Prefect Abreu), who had also taken refuge among the ranchos, were soon afterwards stripped, and finally dispatched d lanzadas, that is, pierced through and through with lances, a mode of assassination very common among those demi-civilized savages. Don Santiago Abreu (brother of the prefect), formerly governor and the most famed charac- ter of N. Mexico, was butchered m a still more barbarous manner. They cut off his hands, pulled oLit his eyes and tongue, and otherwise mutilated his body, taunting him all the while with the crimes he was accused of, by shaking the shorn members in his face. Thus per- ished nearly a dozen of the most conspicuous 132 DISTRIBUTION OF SPOILS. men of the obnoxious party, whose bodies lay for several days exposed to the beasts and birds of prey. On the 9th of August about two thousand of the insurgent mob, including the Pueblo Indians, pitched their camp in the suburbs of the capital. The horrors of a.saqueo (or plun- dering of the city) were now anticipated by every one. The American traders were par- ticularly uneasy, expecting every instant that their hves and property would fall a sacrifice to the ferocity of the rabble. But to the great and most agreeable surprise of all, no outrage of any importance was committed upon either inhabitant or trader. A great portion of the insurgents remained in the city for about two days, during which one of their boldest leaders, Jose Gonzalez of Taos, a good honest hunter but a very ignorant man, was elected for governor. The first step of the revolutionists was to seize all the property of their proscribed or murdered victims, which was afterwards dis- tributed among the victors by a decree of the Asamhlea general — that being the title by wliich a council summoned together by Governor Gonzalez, and composed of all the alcaldes and principal characters of the territory, was dignified. The famihes of the unfortunate I'ictims of this revolutionary movement were thus left destitute of everything ; and the for- eign merchants who had given the officers credit to a large amount upon the strength of their reputed property and salaries, remained INJUSTICE TO AMERICANS. 133 without a single resource with wliich to cover their demands. As these losses were chiefly experienced in consequence of a want of suf- ficient protection from the general govern- ment, the American merchants drew up a memorial setting forth their claims, which, to- gether with a schedule of the various accounts due, was sent to the Hon. Powhattan EUis, American IVIinister at Mexico. These de- mands were certainly of a far more equitable character than many of those which some time after occasioned the French blockade ; yet our Government has given the unfortu- nate claimants no hope of redress. Even Mexi- co did not dispute the justness of these claims, but, on the contrary, she promptly paid to the order of General Armijo, a note given by the late Governor Perez to Mr. Sutton, an Ameri- can merchant, which Armijo had purchased at a great discount. In the South, the Americans were every- where accused of being the instigators of this insurrection, which was openly pronounced another Texas aflair. Their goods were con- fiscated or sequestered, upon the slightest pre- texts, or for some pretended irregularity in the accompanying documents ; although it was e\ident that these and other indignities were heaped upon them, as a punishment for the occurrence of events which it had not been in their power to prevent. Indeed, these ill- used merchants were not only innocent of any participation in the insurrectionary move- ments, but had actually furnished means to 12 134 ARMIJO'S INTRIGUES. the government for the purpose of quelUng the disturbances. As I have observed before, the most active agents in this desperate affair were the Pueblo Indians, although the insurgent party was composed of all the heterogeneous ingredients that a Mexican population teems with. The ranclieros and others of the lowest class, how- ever, were only the instruments of certain dis- contented ricos^ who, it has been said, were in hope of elevating themselves upon the wreck of their enemies. Among these was the pre- sent Governor Armijo, an ambitious and tur bulent demagogue, who, for some cause or other, seemed anxious for the downfall of the Avhole administration. As soon as Armijo received intelligence of the catastrophe, he hurried to the capital, ex- pecting, as I heard it intimated by his own brother, to be elected governor ; but, not having rendered any personal aid, the ' mobo- cracy' would not acknowledge his claim to their suffrages. He therefore retired, Santa- Anna-like, to his residence at Alburquerque, to plot, in imitation of his great prototype, some measures for counteracting the opera- tion of his own intrigues. Li this he suc- ceeded so well, that towards September he was able to collect a considerable force in the Rio-Abajo, when he proclaimed a contra- revolucion in favor of the federal government. About the same time the disbanded troops of the capital under Captain Caballero, made a similar pronunciamento, demanding their arms, COUNTER-MOVEMENT. 135 and offering their services gratis. Tlie 'niobo- cratic' dynasty had gone so far as to deny allegiance to Mexico, and to propose sending to Texas for protection : although there had not been any previous understandmg with that Repubhc. Armijo now marched to Santa Fe with all his force, and Governor Gonzalez being with- out an army to support him, fled to the north. After his triumphal entrance into the capital, Armijo caused himself to be proclaimed Gov- ernor and Comandante General^ and imniedi- ately dispatched couriers to Mexico with a highly colored account of his own exploits, which procured him a confirmation of those titles and dignities for eight years. In the meanwhile news of the insurrection having reached Mexico, the Escuadron de Vera Cruz, from Zacatecas, consisting of about two hundred dragoons, with an equal number of regulars from the Presidios of Chihuahua, under the command of Colonel Justin iani, were ordered to New Mexico. Having ar- rived at Santa Fe, these troops, together with Governor Armijo's little army, marched in January, 1838, to attack the rebels, who, by this time, had again collected in considerable numbers at La Canada. The greatest uneasiness and excitement now prevailed at the Capital, lest the rabble should again prove victorious, in which case they would not fail to come and sack the city. Foreign merchants had as usual the greatest cause for fear, as vengeance had been openly 136 ROUT OF THE INSURGENTS. vowed against them for having furnished the government party with supphes. These, therefore, kept up a continual watch, and had everything in readiness for a precipitate flight to tlie United States. But in a short time their fears were completely dispelled by the arrival of an express, with the welcome news of the entire defeat of the insurgents. It appeared that, when the army arrived within view of the insurgent force, Armijo evinced the gTeatest perturbation. In fact, he was upon the point of retiring witliout ven- turing an attack, when Captain Munoz, of the Vera Cruz dragoons, exclaimed, " What's to be done. General Armijo ? If your Excel- lency will but permit me, I will oust that rabble in an instant with my little company alone." Armijo having given his consent, the gallant captain rushed upon the insurgents, who yielded at once, and fled precipitately — suffering a loss of about a dozen men, among whom was the deposed Governor Gonzalez, who, having been caught in the town after the skirmish had ended, was instantly shot, without the least form of trial. CHAPTER VII. Geographical Position of New Mexico — Absence of navigable Streams — The Rio del Norte — Romantic Chasm — Story of a sunken River — Mr. Stanley's Excursion to a famous Lake — Santa Fe and its Localities — El Valle de Taos and its Fertility — Soil of N. Mexico — The first Settler at Taos and his Contract with the Indians — Salubrity and Pleasantness of the Climate of New Mexico — Population — State of Agriculture — Staple Productions of the Countr}' — Corn-fields and Fences — Irriga- tion and Acequias — Tortillas and Tortilleras — Atole, Frijoles, and Chile — Singular Custom — Culinary and Table Affairs — Flax and the Potato indigenous — Tobacco dnid Puncke — Fruits — Peculiar Mode of cultivating the Grape — Forest Growths — Pinon and Mezquite — Mountain Cottonwood — Palmilla or Soap-plant — Pasturage. New Mexico possesses but few of those natural advantages, which are necessary to anything hke a rapid progress in civihzation. Though bounded north and east by the terri- tory of the United States, south by that of Texas and Chihuahua, and west by Upper Cahfornia, it is surrounded by chains of moun- tains and prairie wilds, extending to a distance of 500 miles or more, except in the direction of Chihuahua, from which its settlements are separated by an unpeopled desert of nearly two hundred miles — and without a single means of communication by water with any other part of the world. 12* 138 GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS. The whole Tiominal territory, inckiding those bleak and uninhabitable regions witli which it is intersected, comprises about 200- 000 square miles — considered, of course, ac- cording to its original boundaries, and there- fore independently of the claims of Texas to the Rio del Norte. To whichsoever sove- reignty that section of land may eventually belong, that portion of it, at least, which is inhabited, should remain united. Any attempt on the part of Texas to make the Rio del Norte the line of demarkation would greatly retard her ultimate acquisition of the territory, as it would leave at least one third of the population accustomed to the same rule, and bound by ties of consanguinity and affinity of customs, wholly at the mercy of the contigu- ous hordes of savages, that inhabit the Cordil- leras on the west of them. This great chain of mountains which reaches the borders of the Rio del Norte, not far above El Paso, would, in my opinion, form the most natural bound- ary between the two countries, from thence northward. There is not a single navigable stream to be found in New Mexico. The famous Rio del Norte is so shallow, for the most part of the year, that Indian canoes can scarcely float in it. Its navigation is also obstructed by fre- quent shoals and ripphng sections for a dis- tance of more than a thousand miles below Santa Fe. Opposite Taos, especially, for an uninterrupted distance of nearly fifteen miles, it runs pent up in a deep caTioriy through which ROMANTIC CHASM. 139 it rushes in rapid torrents. This frightful chasm is absolutely impassable ; and, viewed from the top, the scene is imposing in the ex- treme. None but the boldest hearts and firm- est nerves can venture to its brink, and look down its almost perpendicular precipice, over projecting crags and deep crevices, upon the foammg current of the riv^er, which, in some places, appears like a small rippUng brook; while in others it winds its serpentine course silently but majestically along, through a nar- row little valley; with immense plains border- ing and expanding in every direction, yet so smooth and level that the course of the river is not perceived till within a few yards of the verge. I have beheld this canon from the summit of a mountain, over which the road passes some twenty miles below Taps, from whence it looks like the mere fissure of an in- significant ravine. Baron Humboldt speaks of an extraordi- nary event as having occurred in 1752, of which he says the inhabitants of Paso del Norte still preserved the recollection in his day. " The whole bed of the river," says the learned historian, " became dry all of a sud- den, for more than thirty leagues above and twenty leagues below the Paso : and the wa- ter of the river precipitated itself into a newly formed chasm, and only made its reappear- ance near the Presidio of San Eleazeario. At length, after the lapse of several weeks, the water resumed its course, no doubt because the chasm and the subterraneous con- 140 RIO DEL NORTE. ductors had filled up." This, I must confess, savors considerably of the marvellous, as not the least knowledge of these facts appears to have been handed down to the present gene- ration. Diuing very great droughts, how- ever, this river is said to have entirely disap- peared in the sand, in some places, between San Elceario and the Presidio del Norte. Notwithstanding the numerous tributary streams which would be supposed to pour their contents into the Rio del Norte, very few reach their destination before they are com- pletely exhausted. Rio Puerco, so called from the extreme muddiness of its waters, would seem to form an exception to this rule. Yet this also, ahhough at least a hundred miles in length, is dry at the mouth for a por- tion of the year. The creek of Santa Fe itself, though a bold and dashing ri\ailet in the immediate vicinity of the momitains, sinks into insignificance, and is frequently lost al- together before it reaches the main river. Pe- cos and Conchos, its most important inlets, would scarcely be entitled to a passing re- mark, but for the geographical error of Baron Humboldt, who set down the former' as the head branch of ' Red River of Natchitoches.' These streams may be considered the first constaiit-flowing inlets which the Rio del Norte receives from Santa Fe south — say for the distance of five hundred miles ! It is then no wonder that tliis ' Great River of the North' decreases in volume of water as it descends. [n fact, above the region of tide-water, it is al- ITS NAMES AND CHARACTER. 141 most everywhere fordable during most of the year, being seldom over knee-deep, except at the time of freshets. Its banks are generally very low, often less than ten feet above low- water mark ; and yet, owing to the dispropor- tioned width of the channel (which is for the most part some four hundred yards), it is not subject to inundations. Its only important rises are those of the annual freshets, occasion- ed by the melting of the snow in the moun- tains. This river is only known to the inhabitants of Northern Mexico as Rio del Norte, or North river, because it descends from that direction ; yet in its passage southward, it is in some places called Hio Grande, on account of its extent ; but the name of Hio Bravo (Bold or Rapid river), so often given to it on maps, is seldom if ever heard among the people. Though its entire length, following its me- anders from its source in the Rocky Moun- tains to the Gulf of Mexico, must be consid- erably over two thousand miles, it is hardly naAdgable to the extent of two hundred miles above its mouth. The head branch of Pecos, as well as the creeks of Santa Fe and Tezuque, are said to be fed from a little lake which is located on the summit of a mountain about ten miles east of Santa Fe. Manifold and marvellous are the stories related of this lake and its won- derful localities, which although believed to be at least greatly exaggerated, would no doubt induce numbers of travellers to visit this 142 A MOUNTAIN EXCURSION. snow-bound elysium, were it not for the la^ boriousness of the ascent. The folio wmg graphic account of a ' pleasure excursion' to this celebrated ' watering place,' is from the memoranda of Mr. E. Stanley, who spent many years in the New Mexican capital. " The snow had entirely disappeared from the top of the highest mountains, as seen from Santa Fe before the first of May, and on the eighteenth we set off on our trip. All were furnished with arms and fishing-tackle — well prepared to carry on hostihties both by land and water. Game was said to be abundant on the way — deer, turkeys, and even the for- midable grizzly bear, ready to repel any inva- sion of his hereditary domain. Santa Fe creek, we knew, abounded with trout, and we were in hopes of finding them in the lake, although I had been told by some Mexicans, that there were no fish in it, and that it con- tained no hving thing, except a certain non- descript and hideously misshapen httle ani- mal. We travelled up the course of the creek about eight miles, and then began to cUmb the mountain. Our journey now be- came laborious, the ascent being by no means gradual — rather a succession of hills — some long, others short — some declivitous, and others extremely precipitous. Continuing in this way for six or seven miles, we came to a grove of aspen, thick as cotton woods in the Missouri bottoms. Through this grove, which extended for nearly a mile, no sound met the ear ; no sigrn of hfe — not even an insect was SANTA FE. 143 to be seen ; and not a breath of air was stir- ring. It was indeed a solitude to be felt. A mile beyond the grove brought us near the lake. On this last level, Ave unexpectedly met with occasional snow-banks, some of them still two or three feet deep. Being late, we sought out a suitable encampment, and fixed upon a httle marshy prairie, east of the lake. The night was frosty and cold, and ice was frozen nearly an inch thick. Next morn- ing we proceeded to the lake ; when, lo — in- stead of beholding a beautiful sheet of water, we found an ugly little pond, with an area of two or three acres — frozen over, and one side covered with snow several feet deep. Thus all our hope of trout and monsters were at an end ; and the tracks of a large bear in the snow, were all the game we saw during the trip." Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, is the only town of any importance in the province. We sometimes find it written Santa Fe de San Francisco (Holy Faith of St. Francis), the lat- ter being the patron, or tutelary saint. Like most of the towns in this section of country it occupies the site of an ancient Pueblo or Indian village, whose race has been extinct for a great many years. Its situation is twelve or fifteen miles east of the Rio del Norte, at the western base of a snow-clad mountain, upon a beautiful stream of small mill-power size, which ripples down in icy cascades, and joins the river some twenty miles to the south- westward. The population of the city itself 144 STYLE OF THE TOWN. but little exceeds 3000 ; yet, including several surrounding villages which are embraced in its corporate jurisdiction, it amounts to nearly 6,000 souls.^ The town is very irregularly laid out, and most of the streets are httle better than com- mon highways traversing scattered settle- ments which are interspersed with corn-fields nearly sufficient to supply the inhabitants with grain. The only attempt at anything like architectural compactness and precision, consists in four tiers of buildings, whose fronts are shaded with a fringe of jyor'taks or corre- (lores of the rudest possible description. They stand around the public square, and comprise the Palacio, or Governor's house, the Cus- tom-house, the Barracks (with which is con- nected the fearful Calabozo), the Casa Corisis- torial of the Alcaldes^ the Oapilla de los SoU dcidos or MiUtary Chapel, besides several pri- vate residences, as well as most of the shops of the American traders. The population of New Mexico is almost exclusively, confined to to^vns and villages, the suburbs of which are generally farms. Even most of the individual ranchos and haci- endas have grown into villages, — a result al- * The latitude of Santa Fe, as determineil by various observa- tions, is 35° 41' (though it is placed on nriost maps nearly a degree lurther north); and the longitude about lOe"" west from Green- wich. Its elevation above the ocean is nearly 7000 feet; that of the valley of Taos is no doubt over a mile and a half. The high- est peak of the mountain (which is covered with perennial snow) some ten miles to the northeast of the capital, is reckoned about 5,000 feet above the town. Those from Taos northward rise still to a much greater elevation. VALLEY OF lAOS. 1 iO most indispensable for protection against the iiiamuding savages of the surrounding wilder- ness. Tlie principal of these settlements are iocated in the valley of the Rio del Norte, extending from nearly one hundred miles north to about one hundred and forty south of Santa Fe.^ The most important of these, next to the capital, is El Valle de. Taos,-\ so called in honor of the Taosa tribe of Indians, a remnant of whom still forms a Puehlo in the north of the valley. No part of New Mexico equals this valley in amenity of soil, richness of produce and beauty of appearance. What- ever is thrown into its prolific bosom, which the early frosts of autumn will permit to ripen, grows to a wonderful degi'ee of perfection. Wheat especially has been produced of a superlative quality, and in such abundance, that, as is asserted, the crops have often yield- ed over a hundred fold. I would not have it understood, however, that this is a fair sample of New Mexican soil ; for, in point of fact, though many of the bottoms are of very fertile character, the uplands must chiefly remain unproductive; owing, in part, to the sterility of the soil, but as much, no doubt, to want of irrigation ; hence nearly all the farms and settlements are located in those valleys which * The settlements up the river from the capital are collectively known as Rio-Arriba, and those down the river as Rio-Abajo. The latter comprise over a third of the population, and the princi- pal wealth of New Mexico. t ' The Valley of Taos,' there being no town of this name. It iucludes several villages and other settlements, the largest of which are Fernandez and Ix)S Ranches, four or five miles apart. 13 146 A REMINISCENCE. may be watered by some constant-flowing stream.^ The first settler of the charming valley of Taos, since the coiintiy was reconquered from the Indians, is said to have been a Spaniard named Pando, about the middle of the eight- eenth century. This pioneer of the North, finding himself gr«titly exposed to the depre- dations of the Comanches, succeeded in gain- ing the friendship of that tribe, by promising his infant daughter, then a beautiful child, to one of their chiefs in marriage. But the un- willing maiden having subsequently refused to ratify the contract, the settlement was im- mediately attacked by the savages, and al] were slain except the betrothed damsel who was led into captivity. After living some years with the Comanches on the great prairies, she was bartered away to the Paw- nees, of whom she was eventually purchased by a Frenchman of St. Louis. Some very respectable families in that city are descended from her ; and there are many people yet living who remember with what affecting pathos the old lady was wont to tell her tale of wo. She died but a few years ago. Salubrity of climate is decidedly the most interesting feature in the character of New * For the c^enerally barren and desolate appearance which the uplands of Xew IVIexico present, some of them have possessed an extraordinary degree of fertility; as is demonstrated by tlie fact that mai\y of the fields on the undulating lands in the su^ urbs of Santa Fe, have no doubt been in constant cultivation over two hundred years, and yet produce tolerable crops, witliout having been once renovated by manure. CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 147 Mexico. Nowhere — not even under the inucli boasted Sicilian skies, can a purer or a more wholesome atmosphere be found. Bil- ious diseases — the great scourge of the valley of the JNlississippi — are here almost unknown. Apart from a fatal epidemic fever of a typhoid character, that ravaged the whole province from 1837 to 1839, and which, added to the small- pox that followed in 1840, carried off nearly ten per cent, of the population. New Mexico has experienced very little disease of a febrile character ; so that as great a degree of longe- vity is attained there, perhaps, as in any other portion of the habitable world. Persons with- ered almost to mummies, are to be encoun- terered occasionally, whose extraordinary age is only to be inferred from their recollection of certain notable events which have taken place m times far remote. A sultry day, from Santa Fe north, is of very rare occuiTence. The summer nights are usually so cool and pleasant that a pah of blankets constitutes an article of comfort sel- dom dispensed with. The winters are long, but not so subject to sudden changes as in damper climates; the general range of the thermometer, throughout the year, being from. 10 to 75' above zero, of Fahrenheit. Baron Humboldt was led into as great an error with respect to the chmate of New Mexico as to the rivers ; for he remarks, that near Santa Fe and a Uttle further north, " the Bio del Norte is sometimes covered for a succession of seve- ral years, with ice thick enough to admit the 148 RAINY SEASON. pnssage of horses and carriages:" a circurn- starice which would be scarcely less astound- ing to the New Mexicans, than would the oc- currence of a similar event in the harbor of New York be to her citizens. The great elevation of all the plains about the Rocky Mountains, is perhaps the principal cause of the extraordinary dryness of the at- mosphere. There is but little rain throughout the year, except from July to October — known as the rainy season ; and as the Missouri traders usually arrive about its commencement, the coincidence has given rise to a superstition, quite prevalent among the vulgar, that the 7Vmericans bring the rain with them. During seasons of drought, especially, they look for the arrival of the annual caravans as the har- binger of speedy reUef There has never been an accurate census taken in New Mexico. Of the results of one which was attempted in 1832, the Secretary of State at Santa Fe speaks in the following terms: " At present (1841) we may estimate the Spanish or white population at about 60,000 souls or more, being what remains of 72,000, which the census taken eight or nine vears a«:o showed there then existed in New Mexico." He supposes that this great diminu- tion resulted from the ravages of the frightful diseases already alluded to. The decrease of population from these causes, however, is thus greatly overrated. The discrepancy must find its explanation in the original inaccuracy of the census referred to. POPULATION. 149 If we exclude the unsubjiigated savages, the entire population of New Mexico, mciud- ing the Pueblo Indians, cannot be set down, according to the best estimates I have been able to obtain, at more than 70,000 souls. These may be divided as follows: white Creoles, say 1^000; Mestizos, or mixed Cre- oles, 59,000, aid Pueblos, 10,000. Of natu- ralized citiz'^.s, the number is inconsiderable — scarcely twenty ; and if we except tran- sient traders, there are not over double as many alien residents. There are no negroes in New Mexico, and consequently neither mulattoes nor zambos. In 1803, Baron Hum- boldt set down the population of this province at 40,200, so that according to this the increase for forty years has barely exceeded one per cent, per annum. Agriculture, like almost everything else in New Mexico, is in a very primitive and un- improved state. A great portion of the pea- santry cultivate with the hoe alone — their ploughs (when they have any) being only used for mellow grounds, as they are too rudely constructed to be fit for any other ser- vice. Those I have seen in use are mostly fashioned in this manner : — a section of the trunk of a tree, eight or ten inches in diame- ter, is cut about two feet long, with a small branch left projecting upwards, of convenient length for a handle. With this a beam is con- nected to which oxen are yoked. The block, with its fore end sloped downwards to a point, runs fiat, and opens a furrow similar to that of 13* loO AGRlCLLTL'ftE. the common shovel-plough. What is equally worthy of remark is, that these ploughs are often made exclusively of wood, without one particle of iron, or even a nail to increase their durability. The labores and miJpas (cultivated fields) are often, indeed most usually, without any en- closure. The owners of cattle are obhged to keep herdsmen constantly with them, else graze them at a considerable distance from the farms ; for if any trespass is committed upon the fields by stock, the proprietor of the latter is bound to pay damages : therefore, in- stead of the cultivator's ha\ing to guard his crop from the cattle as with us, the owners of these are bound to guard them from the crops. Only a chance farm is seen fenced with poles scattered along on forks, or a loose hedge of brush. Mud-fences, or walls of very large adobes^ are also occasionally to be met with. The necessity of irrigation has confined, and no doubt will continue to confine agriculture principally to the valleys of the constant-flow- ing streams. In some places the crops are frequently cut short by the drying up of the streams. Where water is abundant, however, art has so far superseded the offices of nature in watering the farms, that it is almost a ques- tion whether the interference of nature in tlie matter would not be a disadvantage. On the one hand the husbandman need not have his grounds overflowed if he administers the wa- ter himself, nmch less need he permit them IRRIGATION. 151 to suffer from drought. He is therefore more sure of his crop than if it were subject to the caprices of the weather in more favored agri- cultural regions. One acequia madre (mother ditch) suffices generally to convey water for the irrigation of an entire valley, or at least for all the fields of one town or settlement. This is made and kept in repah" by the pubhc, under the super- vision of the alcaldes ; laborers being allotted to work upon it as with us upon our county roads. The size of this principal ditch is of course proportioned to the quantity of land to be watered. It is con^yed over the highest part of the valley, which, on these mountain streams, is, for the most part, next to the hills. From this, each proprietor of a farm runs a minor ditch, in like manner, over the most elevated part of his field. Where there is not a superabundance of water, which is often the case on the smaller streams, each farmer has his day, or portion of a day allot- ted to him for irrigation ; and at no other time is he permitted to extract water from the acequia nuidre. Then the cultivator, after let- ting the water into his minor ditch, dams this, first at one point and then at another, so as to overflow a section at a time, and with his hoe, depressing eminences and filling sinks, he causes the water to spread regularly over the surface. Though the operation would seem tedious, an expert irrigator will water in one day his five or six acre field, if level, and everything well arranged ; yet on 152 STAPLE PRODUCTIONS. uneven ground he will hardly be able to get over half of that amount.^ All the acequias for the valley of the Rio del Norte are conveyed from the main stream, ex cept where a tributary of more convenient wa- ter happens to join it. As the banks of the river are very low, &nd the descent considerable, the water is soon brought upon the surface by a horizontal ditch along an incUned bank, commencing at a convenient point of con- stant-flowing water — generally without dam, except sometimes a wing of stones to turn the current into the canal. The staple productions of the country are emphatically Indian corn and wheat. The former grain is most extensively employed for making tortillas — an article of food great- ly in demand among the people, the use of which has been transmitted to them by the aborigines. The corn is boiled in water with a httle lime : and when it has been sufficiently softened, so as to strip it of its skin, it is ground into paste upon the metate^'f and form- ed into a thin cake. This is afterwards spread on a small sheet of iron or copper, called * There is no land measure here correspondent to our acres. Husbandmen rate their fields by the amount of wheat necessar}^ to sow them ; and thus speak of a fanega of ]a.nd—fa7iega being a measure of about two bushels — meaning an extent which two bushels of wheat will suffice to sow. Tracts are usually sold by the number of legnus (leagues), or varas front of irrigable lands ; for those back from the streams are considered wotthless. The vara is very nearly 33 English inches, 5,000 of which constitute the Mexican league — under two miles and two-thirds. t From the Indian word metatl, a hollowed oblong stone, used as a ghnding-machine. TORTiLLA-MAKING. 153 A KIICHEN SCENE. comal {comalli, by the Indians), and placed over the fire, where, in less than three min- utes, it is baked and ready for use. The tiiin- ness of the tortilla is always a great test of skill in the maker, and much rivalry ensues in the art of preparation. The office of mak- ing tortillas has, from the earliest times, per- tained chiefly to the women, who appear to be better adapted to this employ than the other sex, both as regards skill and dexterity, in pre- paring this particular food for the table. I perfectly agree with the historian Clavigero, hov\^ever, in the opinion that "although this species of corn-bread maybe very wholesome and substantial, and well-flavored when new- ly made, it is unpleasant when cold." A sort of tliin mush, called atok, made of 154 PECULIARITIES OF DIET. Indian meal, is another article of diet, the pre- paration of which is from the aborigines ; and such is its nationality, that in the North it is frequently called el cafe de los Mexicartos (the coftee of the Mexicans). How general soever the use of coffee among Americans may ap- pear, that of atole is still more so among the lower classes of Mexicans. They virtually 'breakfast, dine and sup' upon it. Of this, indeed, with frijoles and chile (beans and red pepper), consists their principal food. The extravagant use of red pepper among the Mexicans has become truly proverbial. It enters into nearly every dish at every meal, and often so predominates as entirely to con- ceal the character of the viands. It is hke- wise ground into a sauce, and thus used even more abundantly than butter. Chile verde (green pepper), not as a mere condiment, but as a salad, served up in different ways, is reckoned by them one of the greatest luxuries. But however much we may be disposed to question then* taste m this particular, no one can hesitate to do homage to their incompara- ble chocolate, in the preparation^^of which the Mexicans surely excel every other people. Besides these, many other articles of diet peculiar to the country, and adopted from the aborigines, are still in use — often of rich and exquisite flavor, and though usually not mucli relished at first by strangers, they are for the most part highly esteemed after a little use. The rancheros, and all the humbler classes TABLE CL^STOxMS. 155 of people, very seldom use any table for their meals, an inconvenience Avliich is very little felt, as the dishes are generally served out from the kitchen in courses of a single plate to each guest, who usually takes it upon his knees. Knives and forks are equalJy dis- pensed with, the viands being mostly hashed or boiled so very soft as to be eaten Avith a spoon. This is frequently supphed by the tortUki, a piece of which is ingeniously dou- bled between the fingers, so as to assist in the disposal of anything, be it ever so rare or liquid. Thus it may well be said, as in the story of the Oriental monarch, that these ran- chcros employ a new spoon for every mouth- ful: for each fold of the tortilla is devoured with the substance it conveys to the mouth. The very singuhu: custom of abstaining from all sorts of beverage during meals, has frequently afforded me a great deal of amuse- ment. Although a large cup of Avater is set before each guest, it is not customary to drink it off till the repast is finished. Should any one take it up in his hand while in the act of eating, the host is apt to cry out, " Hold, hold I there is yet more to come." I have never been able to ascertain definitely the meaning of this peculiarity; but from the strictness with which it is observed, it is natural to sup- pose, that the use of any kind of drink whilst eating, is held extremely unwholesome.^ * What also strikes the stranger as a singularity in that country, is that the females rarely ever eat with the males —at least in the presence of strangers — but usually take their food in the kitchen by themselves. 156 INDIGENOUS PLANTS. The New Mexicans use but little wine at meals, and that exclusively of the produce of the Paso del Norte. But to return to the productions of the soil. Cotta?i is cultivated to no extent, although it has always been considered as indigenous to the countr}- ; while the ancient manufactures of the aborigines prove it to have been especi- ally so in this province. Flax is entirely neg- lected, and yet a plant resembhng in every respect that of the linum usitatissimum, is to be found in great abundance in many of the mountain valleys. The poMto (la pajxi), al- though not cultivated in this country till \ery lately, is unquestionably an indigenous plant, being still found in a state of nature in many of the mountain valleys — ^though of small size, seldom larger than iilberts : whence it ap- pears that this luxuiy had not its exclusive origin in South America, as is the current opinion of the present day. Universal as the Use of tobacco is among these people, there is veiy little of it grown, and that chiefly of a hght and weak species, called by the natives piouhe, which is also indigenous, and still to be met Avith growing wild in some ])laces. What has in a great measure contributed to discourage people from attending to the culti- vation of the tobacco plant, is the monopr)ly of this iiidispemabk by the federal govern- ment ; for although the tobacco laws are not enforced in New INIexico (there bein^ no EstmiquiUo, or public store-house), yet the people cannot carry it anywhere else in the FRUITS THE GRAPE. 157 republic for sale, without risk of its being iniiiiediately confiscated. A still more power- ful cause operating against this, as well as every other branch of agriculture in New Mexico, is the utter want of navigable streams, as a cheap and convenient means of transpor- tation to distant markets. Famous as the republic of Mexico has been for the quality and variety of its fruits, this province, considering its latitude, is most sin- gularly destitute in this respect. A few or- chards of apples, peaches and apricots, are occasionally met with, but even these are of very inferior quality, being only esteemed in the absence of something better. A few small vineyards are also to be found in the valley of the Rio del Norte, but the grape does not thrive as at El Paso. The mode of cul- tivating the grape in these parts is somewhat pecuhar, and might, I have no doubt, be prac- tised to great advantage in other countries. No scaffold or support of any kind is erected for the vines, which are kept pruned so as to form a sort of shrubbery. Every fall of the year, these are completely covered Avith earth, which protects them during the winter. Upon the opening of spring the dirt is scraped away, and the vines pruned again. This be- ing repeated from year to year, the shrubs soon acquire sufficient strength to support the heavy crops of improved and superiorly-fla- vored grapes which they finally produce. Indigenous wild fruits are not quite so scarce; a clear evidence that the lack of culti- 14 158 GROWTHS THE PINON. vated fruit is not so much the fault of nature, as the result of indolence and neglect on the part of the people. The prickly pear is found in greatest abundance, and of several varie- ties : and though neither very wholesome nor savory, it is nevertheless frequently eaten. There is but little timber in New Mexico, except in the mountains and along the water- courses ; the table-plains and valleys are gene- rally all open prairie. The forest growths, moreover, of all the north of Mexico, present quite a limited variety of timber, among which a species of pitch-pine mostly predo- minates. The tree which appears to be most pecuhar to the country, is a kind of scrub pine called pi/ion, which grows generally to the height of twenty or thirty feet, with leaves ever-green and pine-hke, but scarcely an inch long. From the surface of this tree exudes a species of turpentine resembhng that of the pitch-pine, but perhaps less resinous. The wood is w^hite and firm, and much used for fuel. The most remarkable appendage of this tree is the fruit it bears, which is also known by the same name. This is a little nut about the size of a kidney-bean, with a rich oily kernel in a thin shell, enclosed in a chestnut- like bur. It is of pleasant flavor and much eaten by the natives, and considerable quan- tities are exported annually to the southern cities. It is sometimes used for the manu- facture of a certain land of oil, said to be very good for lamps. The mezquite tree, vulgarly called muskeet THE MEZQUITE. 159 in Texas, where it has attained some celebrity, grows in some of the fertile valleys of Chi- huahua to the height of thirty and forty feet, with a trunk of one to two feet in diameter. Tlie wood makes excellent fuel, but it is sel- dom used for other purposes, as it is crooked, knotty, and very coarse and brittle, more re- sembhng the honey-locust (of which it might be considered a scrubby species) than the ma- hogany, as some people have asserted. The fruit is but a diminutive honey-locust in ap- pearance and flavor, of the size and shape of a flattened bean-pod, with the seeds disposed in like manner. Tliis pod, which, like that of the honey-locust encloses a glutinous sub- stance, the Apaches and other tribes of Indians grmd into flour to make their favorite pinole. The mezquite seems undoubtedly of the Aca- cia Arabica species ; as some physicians who have examined the gum which exudes from the tree, pronounce it genuine Arabic. On the water-courses there is little timber to be found except cottonwood, scantily scat- tered along their banks. Those of the Rio del Norte are now nearly bare throughout the whole range of the settlements, and the inha- bitants are forced to resort to the distant mountains for most of their fuel. But no- where, even beyond the settlements, are there to be seen such dense cottonwood bottoms as those of the Mississippi valley. Besides the common cottonwood there is another to be found upon the mountain streams of New Mexico, which has been called willow-leaf 160 THE aJOAP-PLANT. or bitter cottonwood (populus angustifoUal) and has been reckoned by some a species of cinchona, yet for no other reason perhaps than that the bark possesses efficacious tonic quah- ties. Attached to the seeds of this tree is also a cotton similar to that of the sweet cotton- wood, or populas angulata. Among the wild productions of New Mexi- co is the p<7/;?u7/a — a species of palmetto, which might be termed the soap-plant — whose roots, as well as those of another species known as palma (or palm), when bruised, form a saponaceous pulp called amok, much used by the natives for washing clothes, and is said to be even superior to soap for scouring woollens. But by far the most important indigenous product of the soil of New Mexico is its pas- turage. Most of the high table-plains afford the finest grazing in the world, while, for want of water, they are utterly useless for most other purposes. That scanty moisture which suffices to bring forth the natural vege- tation, is insufficient for agricultural produc- tions, without the aid of irrigation. The high prairies of all Northern Mexico differ greatly from those of our border in the general cha- racter of their vegetation. They are remarka- bly destitute of the gay flowering plants for which the former are so celebrated, being most- ly clothed with different species of a highly nutritious grass called grama, which is of a very short and curly quaUty. The highlands, upon which alone this sort of grass is produc- THE PASTURAGE. 161 ed, being seldom verdant till after the rainy- season sets in, the grama is only in perfection from Augnst to October. But being rarely- nipt by the frost until the rains are over, it cures upon the ground and remains excel- lent hay — equal if not superior to that which is cut and stacked from our western prairies. Although the winters are rigorous, the feed- ing of stock is almost entirely unknown in New Mexico ; nevertheless, the extensive herds of the country, not only of cattle and sheep, but of mules and horses, generally maintain themselves in excellent condition upon the dry pasturage alone through the cold season, and until the rains start up the green grass again the following summer. 14* CHAPTER VIII. The Mines of Neu' Mexico — Supposed Concealment of them bj the Indians — Indian Superstition and Cozenage — Ruins of La Gran Quivira— Old Mines — Placeres or Mines of Gold Dust — Speculative Theories as to the original Deposites of the Gold — Mode of Working the Placeres — Manners and Customs of ihe Miners — Arbitrary Restrictions of the Mexican Govern- ment upon Foreigners — Persecution of a Gachupin — Disas- trous Effects of official Interference upon the Mining Interest — Disregard of American Rights and of the U. States Govern- ment— Gambnchws and their System — Gold found throughout N. Mexico — Silver Mines — Copper, Zinc and Lead — Sul- phurous Springs — Gypsum, and Petrified Trees. Tradition speaks of numerous and produc- tive mines having been in operation in New Mexico before the expulsion of the Spaniards in 1680 ; but that the Indians, seeing that the cupidity of the conquerors had been the cause of their former cruel oppressions, determined to conceal all the mines by filUng them up, and obliterating as much as possible every trace of them. This was done so efiectually, as is told, that after the second conquest (the Spaniards in the mean time not having turned their attention to mining pursuits for a series of years), succeeding generations were never able to discover them again. Lideed it is now generally credited by the Spanish population. MINES INDIAN STORIES. 163 that the Pue])lo Indians, up to the present day, are acquainted with tlie locales of a great num- ber of these wonderful mines, of which they most sedulously preserve the secret Rumor further asserts that the old men and sages of the Pueblos periodicaUy lecture the youths on this subject, warning them against discov- ering the mines to the Spaniards, lest the cru- elties of the orighial conquest be renewed to- wards them, and they be forced to toil and suffer in- those mines as in days of yore. To the more effectual preservation of secrecy, it is also stated that they have called in the aid of superstition, by promulgating the belief that the Indian who reveals the location of these hidden treasures, will surely perish by the wrath of their gods. Pla}T.ng upon the creduUty of the people, it sometimes happens that a roguish Indian will amuse himself at the expense of his reputed superiors in intelligence, by proffering to dis- close some of these concealed treasures. I once knew a waggish savage of this kind to propose to show a valley where virgin gold could be ' scraped up by the basket-full.' On a bright Sunday morning, the time appointed for the expedition, the chuckling Indian set out with a train of Mexicans at his heels, pro- vided with mules and horses, and a large quantity of meal-bags to carry in the golden stores; but, as the shades of evening were closing around the party, he discovered that he couldn't find the place. It is not at all probable, however, that the 164 RUINS OF GRAN QUIVIRA. aborigines possess a tenth part of the know- ledge of these ancient fountains of wealth, tliat is generally attributed to them ; but that ^many valuable mines were once Avrought in *this province, not only tradition but authenti- cated records and existing relics sufficiently prove. In every quarter of the territory there are still to be seen vestiges of ancient excava- tions, and in some places, ruins of considera- ble towns evidently reared for mining purposes. Among these ancient ruins the most re- markable are those of La Gran Quicira, about 100 miles south Avard from Santa Fe. This appears to have been a considerable city, larger and richer by far than tlie present cap- ital of New Mexico . has ever been. Many walls, particularly those of churches, still stand erect amid the desolation that surrounds them, as if their sacredness had been a shield against which Time dealt his blows in vain. The st}"le of architecture is altogether superior to anything at present to be found north of Chi- huahua— being of hewn stone, a building material wholly unused in New Mexico. What is more extraordinary^ still, is, that there is no water within less than some ten miles of the ruins; yet we find several stone cis- terns, and remains of aqueducts eight or ten miles in length, leading from the neighboring mountains, from Avhence water was no doubt conveyed. And, as there seem to be no in- dications whatever of the inhabitants' ever having been engaged in agricultural pursuits, what could have induced the rearing of a city THEIR CHARACTER. 165 ill sucli an arid, woodless plain as this, ex- cept the proximity of some vahiable mine, it is dithcLilt to miagine. From tlie pecuUar char- acter of the place and the remams of the cis- terns still existing, the object of pursuit in this cai>e would seem to have been a placer^ a name applied to mines of gold-dust hitermixed with the earth. However, other mines have no doubt been worked in the adjacent mountains, as many spacious pits are found, such as are usually dug m pursuit of ores of silver, etc. ; and it is stated that in several places heaps of scoria are still to be seen. By some persons these ruins have been supposed to be the remains of an ancient Pue- blo or aborighial city. That is not probable, however ; for though the rehcs of aboriginal temples might possibly be mistaken for those of Catholic churches, yet it is not to be pre- sumed that the Spanish coat of arms would be found sculptured and painted upon their facades, as is the case in more than one in- stance. The most rational accounts represent this to have been a wealthy Spanish city be- fore the general massacre of 1680, in which calamity the inhabitants perished — all except one, as the story goes; and that their im- mense treasures were buried in the ruins. Some credulous adventurers have lately vis- ited the spot in search of these long lost cof- fers, but as yet none have been found.^ * In the same \'icinity there are some other ruins of a similar character, though less extensive ; the principal of which are those of Abo, Tagique and Chihli. The last of these is now being; resettled b^^ the Mexicans. 166 ANCIENT MINES. The mines ol" Cerrillos, twenty miles southward of Santa Fe, although of un- doubted antiquity, have, to all appearance, been worked to some extent within the pre- sent century ; indeed, they have been re- opened within the recollection of the present generation ; but the enterprise having been attended with httle success, it was again aban- doned. Among numerous pits still to be seen at this place, there is one of immense depth cut through solid rock, which it is be- Heved could not have cost less than $100,000. In the mountams of Sandia, Abiquiu, and more particularly in those of Picuris and Em- budo, there are also numerous excavations of considerable depth. A few years ago an en- terprising American undertook to reopen one of those near Picuris ; but after having pene- trated to the depth of more than a hundred feet, without reaching the bottom of the ori- ginal excavation (wliich had probably been filling up for the last hundred and fifty years), he gave it up for want of means. Other attempts have since been made, but witli as little success. Whether these failures have been caused by want of capital and en- ergy, or whether the veins of ore were ex- hausted by the original miners, remains for future enterprise to determine. The only successful mines known in New Mexico at the present day, are those of gold, the most important one of which is that ori- ginally incori)oratcd as El Real de Dolores, but generally known by the signifi<:ant name of PLACER UF GOLD. 167 El Placer. This mine lies in a low detached spur of mountains, at a distance of twenty- seven miles south of the capital. In 1828, a Sotioreno who w^as in the habit of herding his mules in that vicinity, being one day in pur- suit of some that had strayed into the moun- tains, happened to pick up a stone, which he soon identified as being of the same class that was to be found in the gold regions of Sono- ra. Upon a little further examination, he de- tected sundry particles of gold, which did not fail to occasion some degree of excitement in the country. Although the amount procured from these mines, was, for the first two oi three years, veiy insignificant, yet it answered the purpose of testing the quality of the me- tal, which was found to be of uncommon purity. A market was therefore very soon opened with foreign merchants. The quantity of gold extracted between the years 1832 and '35 could not have amounted to less than from $60,000 to $80,- 000 per armum. Since this time, however, there has been a considerable falling off*, some seasons producing but $30,000 or $40,000. It is believed, notwithstanding, that the en- tire aggregate yield since the first discovery has exceeded half a miUion of dollars. The reduction in profit during the last few years has been caused more by want of energy and enterprise, than by exhaustion of the precious metal, as only a very small portion of the ' gold region ' has as yet been dug ; and experience has shown that the ' dust ' is about 168 QUALITY OF THE GOLD. as likely to be found in one part of it as in another. All the best 'diggings' in the im- mediate ^icinity of the water, however, seem pretty well excavated : in some places the hills and valleys are hterally cut up Uke a honey-comb. It has been the impression of some per- sons, that the gold of this region was origi- nally accumulated in some particular deposit, and that it has thus been spread over the sur- face of the country by some volcanic erup- tion. The dust and grains obtained at this mine, arc ^^rgin gold, and, as before remarked, of very fine quality, producing at the United States Mint an average of at least $19 70 to the ounce troy after melting, or about $19 30 gross. It was at first bought by the traders at the rate of fifteen dollars per ounce, but in consequence of the competition which was afterwards excited among the dealers, its price was raised for a short time above its maxi- mum at the Mint, although it has since set- tled down at about $17 30 per ounce troy. During the process of these excavations, when such a depth has been reached as to render a ladder indispensable, a pole ten or fifteen feet long is cut full of notches for that purpose, and set diagonally in the orifice. In proportion as the pit becomes deeper, others are added, forming a somewhat precarious zigzag staircase, by which the agile miner descends and ascends without even using his hands to assist himself, although A^ath a large Mu\i:;j ui'tiiATiONS. 169 GOLD-WASHING. load of earth upon his shoulders. It is in this ^vay that most of the rubbish is extracted from tiiese mines, as windlasses or machineiy of any kind are rarely used. The winter season is generally preferred by the miners, for the facilities it affords of sup- plying the gold-washers with water in the im- mediate neighborhood of their operations ; for the great scarcity of water about the min- ing regions is a very serious obstacle at other seasons to successful enterprise. Water in winter is obtained by melting a quantity of snow thrown into a sink, with heated stones. Those employed as washers are very fre- quently the wives and children of the miners. A round wooden bowl called batea, about eighteen inches in diameter, is the wai^hmg 15 170 PROCESS OF WASHING. vessel, which they fill with the earth, and then immerse it in the pool, and stir it with their hands ; by which operation the loose dirt floats off, and the gold settles to the bottom. In this manner they continvie till nothing re- mains in the bottom of the hatea but a httle hea- vy black sand mixed with a few grains of gold, the value of which (to the trayful) varies from one to twelve cents, and sometimes, in very rich soils, to twenty-five or more. Some at- tempts have been made to wash with ma- chinery, but as yet without success; partly owing to the scarcity of water, but as nmch perhaps to a lack of perseverance, and to the arbitrary restrictions imposed upon foreigners, who, after all, are the only persons that have ever attempted any improvements of the kind. An instance or two will fully illustrate the^ embarrassments and disadvantages to which foreigners are subject, in embarking capital in mining enterprises in this country. When the Placer was in its greatest honan za — yielding very large profits to those en- gaged in the business — the 'mining fever* rose to such a tremendous pitch anions the New Mexicans, particularly the govern- ment officers, that every one fancied he saw a door opened for the accumulation of a princely fortune. About the commencement of this gold mania, a very arbitrary and tyrannical meas- ure was adopted in order to wrest from a per- secuted Gaclnipin^ his interest in a mine, in * A term used to designate European Spaniards in America. MINING ANECDOTE. 171 which he had made a very propitious com- aiencenient. This mine, diflerent from the rest of the Placer, consisted of a vein of gold m a stratum of rock, which it was necessary to grind and separate with quicksilver ; and as it belonged to a native named Ortiz who knew notliing of this operation, the latter formed a partnership with Don Damaso Lopez, the Ga- chupin before alluded to, who had some ex- perience and skill in mining operations and the extraction of metals. The partners went vigorously to work, and at the close of the first month found that their net profits amounted to several hundred dollars, consisting in a few balls of gold. At the sight of these, Ortiz was so overjoyed that he must needs exhibit his valuable acquisitions to the governor and other officers and magnates of the capital, who, with characteristic cupidity, at once be- grudged the Gachupin his prospective fortune. A compact was thereupon entered into be- tAveen the oficiales and the acquiescent Ortiz, to work the mine on their joint account, and to exclude Lopez altogether. This they effected by reviving the old decree of expulsion (spok- en of in another place), which had vhtually become obsolete. The unfortunate victim of this outrageous conspiracy was accordingly ordered to the frontier, as the patriotic officers alleged that they " could no longer connive at his residence so near the capital in contra- vention of the laws." The new company now commenced opera- tions with additional zeal and earnestness. 172 POLITICAL OPPHESSION. But they were destined to expiate their ill con« duct in a way they had least anticipated. The ores collected during the first month, had been ground and impregnated with quick- silver, and the amalgamation being supposed complete, all the partners in the concern were summoned to witness the splendid results of the new experiments. Yet, after the most diligent examination, not a grain of gold ap- peared ! The fact is, that they were all ig- norant of mining operations, and knew no- thing of the art of separating the metals from the ores. The mine had therefore soon to be abandoned, and Ortiz found himself pros- trated by his losses — a victim to the unprinci- pled rapacity of his new associates. Lest foreigners generally should share the wealth which was being developed in these mountains, an order was subsequently issued prohibiting all except natives from working at the mines. Some who had commenced ope- rations at the Placer, and incurred considera- ble expense, were compelled suddenly to break up, with an enthe loss of all their labor and outlays. Acts of political oppression like these have discouraged Americans from making any fur- ther attempts, although the decree of prohibi- l^jn has ceased to be enforced. Could any dependence be placed in the integrity of the government, I have no doubt that, with suffi- cient capital and the aid of machinery (such as is used in the mines of Georgia and Caro- lina), the old mines of this province might be GAMBUCINOS. 173 reopened, and a great number of the pla- seres very extensively and profitably worked. But as New Mexico is governed at present, there is no security in an enterprise of the kind. The progress of a foreign adventurer is always Uable to be arrested by the jealousy of the government, upon the first flattering bonanza, as the cited instances abundantly demonstrate. Americans in particular would have httle to hope for in the way of redress; for our government has shown itself so tardy in redressing or revenging injuries done its citizens by foreign states, that they would be oppressed, as they have been, with less scruple because with more unpunity than the subjects of any other nation. The gold regions are, for the most part, a kind of common property, and have been wrought chiefly by an indigent class of peo- ple, known familiarly as gambucinos, a name apphed to petty miners who work ' on their own hook.' Among these one very seldom finds any foreigners ; for according to the pre- sent simple method of working, the profit is too small and too precarious to entice the indepen- dent American laborer, who is seldom willing to work for less than a dollar a day, clear of all expenses; while the Mexican gambucino is content with two or three reales, most of which is required to furnish him food. Therefore these poor miners lead a miserable life after all. When short of means they often support them- selves upon only a real each per day, their usual food consisting of bread and a kind of 174 NL'W MINE^. coarse cake -sugar called piloncillo, to which is sometimes added a little crude ranchero cheese ; yet they seem perfectly satisfied. To prevent colUsions among such heteroge- neous multitudes as are to be found at the min- ing places, some municipal provisions have been established, in pursuance of which any person may open a labar or pit on unoccupied ground not nearer than ten paces to another, and is entitled to the same extent in every di- rection, not interfering with prior claims — his labor being confirmed for a small fee by apph- cation to the alcalde. But if the proprietor abandon his labor for a certain time, any one that chooses may take possession. Besides the Placer of which I have already .spoken, others have lately been discovered in the same ledge of mountains towards the south, one of which is now extensively work- ed, being already filled with retail shops of every description, where all the gold that is extracted, is either sold or bartered. The garabucinos being generally destitute of all other resources, are often obhged to dispose of their gold daily — and very frequently in driblets of but a few cents value. Placeres of gold have also been discovered in the moun- tains of Abiquiu, Taos and elsewhere, which have been worked to some extent. In truth, as some of the natives have justly remarked, New Mexico is almost one continuous p^cer; traces of gold being discoverable over nearly the whole surface of the country. The opi- nion formerly entertained that gold is only to SILVER MINES. 175 he found in southern climates, seems fully confuted here ; for at a point called Sangre de Cristo, considerably north of Taos, (above the 37th degree of latitude), and which from its location among the snowy mountains of that region, is ice-bound over half the year, a very rich placer has been discovered ; yet owing to the pecuharly exposed situation in which it lies, it has been very little worked. For the last century no silver mines have been in successful operation in New Mexico. A few years ago there Avas discovered near the \illage of Manzano, in the mountains of Tome, a vein of silver which bid fair to prove profitable ; but when the ore came to be test- ed, the rock was found to be so hard that the pursuit has been entirely abandoned. In addition to gold and silver, there are also to be found, in many isolated spots, ores of copper, zinc, and lead ; ahhough the latter is so mixed up with copper and other hard metals, as to be almost unfit for ordinary pur- poses. The copper obtained in the province has frequently been found to contain a slight mixture of the precious metals, well worth extracting. Iron is also abundant. Besides the mines of metals which have been discovered, or yet remain concealed in the mountains of New Mexico, those of Salt (or salt lakes, as they would perhaps be called), the Salinas, are of no inconsiderable importance. Near a hundred miles southward from the capital, on the high table land between the Rio del Norte and Pecos, there are some ex- 176 SALINAS, OR SALT LAKES. tensive salt ponds, which afford an inexhausti- ble supply of this indispensable commodity, not only for the consumption of this pro\ince, but for portions of the adjoining departments. The largest of these Salinas is five or six miles in circumference. The best time to collect the salt is during the dry season, when the lakes contain but Uttle water ; but even when flooded, salt may be scooped up from the bottom, where it is deposited in immense beds, in many places of unknown depth ; and, when dried, much resembles the common alum salt. The best, however, which is of superior quality, rises as a scum upon the wa- ter. A great many years ago, a firm causeway was thrown up through the middle of the principal lake, upon which the carretas and mules are driven, and loaded with salt still dripping with water. The Salinas are pubhc property, and the people resort to them several times a year, — in caravans, for protection against the savages of the desert in which they are situated. Although this salt costs nothing but the labor of carrying it away, the danger from the Indians and the privations experienced in an expedition to the Salinas are such, that it is seldom sold in the capital for less than a dollar per bushel. On the same great plain still a hundred miles further south, there is another Salina of the same character. While I am on this subject, I cannot for- bear a brief notice of the mineral springs of New Mexico. There are several warm springs {ojos calientes), whose waters are generally MINERAL SPRINGS, ETC. 177 sulphurous, and considered as highly effica- cious in the cure of rheumatisms and other chronic diseases. Some are bold springs, and of a very agreeable temperature for baih- ing ; but there is one in the west of the pro- vince, which does not flow very freely, but merely escapes through the crevices of the rocks, yet it is hot enough to cook any article of food. It is a curious phenomenon, that, within a few paces of it, as in the case of the hot springs of Arkansas, there is another spring perfectly cold. New Mexico affords many interesting geo- logical productions, of which the most useful to the natives is yeso or gypsum, which abounds in many places. Being found in foliated blocks, composed of laminae, which are easily separated with a knife into sheets from the thickness of paper to that of window- glass, and almost as transparent as the latter, it is used to a great extent in the ranchos and villages for window-hghts, for which indeed it is a tolerable substitute. In several places about the borders of the mesas are to be found some beautiful speci- mens of petrified trees. One hes between Santa Fe and the Placer, broken into blocks since its petrifaction, which shows every knot, crack and sphnter almost as natural as in its ligneous state. It is said that there are some of these arboreous petrifactions in the vicinity of Gahsteo, still standing erect. CHAPTER IX. Domestic Animals and their Condition — Indifference on the sub- ject of Horse-breeding — Caballos de SUla — Popularity and Usefulness of the Mule — Mode of harnessing and lading Mules for a Journey — Arrieros and their System — The Malera or Bell-mare — Surprising feats of the Muleteers and Vaqueros — The Lazo and its uses — Ridiculous Usages of the country in regard to the Ownership of Animals — Anecdote of a Mexican Colonel — The Burro or domestic ass and its Virtues — Shep- herds and their Habits — The Itinerant Herds of the Plains — Sagacity of the Shepherds' Dogs — The Sheep Trade — Destruc- tion of Cattle by the Indians — Philosophical notions of the Marauders — Excellent Mutton — Goats and their Utility — Wild Animals and their Character — A ' Bear Scrape' — Wolves, Panthers, Wild Birds and Reptiles — The Honey-bee, etc. Nothing that has come within my sphere of observation in New Mexico, has astonish- ed me more than the httle attention that is paid to the improvement of domestic animals. While other nations have absolutely gone mad in their endeavors to better their breeds of horses, and have ransacked the four quarters of the world for the best blood and purest pedigrees, the New Mexicans, so justly cele- brated for skilful horsemanship, and so much devoted to equestrian exercise, that they have been styled a race of centaurs, leave the propagation of their horses exclusively to MEXICAN HORSES. 179 chance ; converting their best and handsomest steeds into saddle-liorses. Their race of horses is identical with that which is found running wild on the Prairies, faniiharly known by the name of mustang. Ahhough generally very small, they are quick, active and spirited : and were they not com- monly so much injured in the breaking, they would perhaps be as hardy and long-lived as any other race in existence. Some of their ca- ballos de silla or saddle-horses are so remarkably Avell trained, that they will stop suddenly upon the slightest check, charge against a wall with- out shrinking, and even attempt to clamber up its sides. In addition to this, a complete riding horse should have a pecuhar up-and- down gait, affording all the exercise of the most violent trotter, while he gets over the ground so slowly as to enable the cahallero to enjoy the ' pleasures' of a fatiguing ride of hours, without losmg sight of his mistress's balcony. The little attention paid to the breeding of horses in New Mexico, may perhaps be ac- counted for from the fact that, until lately, when the continued depredations of the hostile Indians discouraged them from their favorite pursuit, the people of the country had bestow- ed all their care in the raising of mules. This animal is in fact to the Mexican, what the camel has always been to the Arab — invalua- ble for the transportation of freight over sandy deserts and mountainous roads, Avhere no other means' of conveyance could be used to 180 HARNESSING PACK-MULES. such advantage. These mules will travel fi i hiuKlrods of miles with a load of the most bulky and unwieldy articles, weighing fre- quently three or four hundred pounds. The Aparejo (or pack-saddle, if it can be so styled), is a largo pad, consisting of a leathern case stuffed with hay, which covers the back of the mule and extends half way down on both sides. This is secured with a wide sea- grass bandage, with which the poor brute is so tightly laced as to reduce the middle of its body to half its natural size. During the operation of lacing, the corseted quadruped stands trembling in perfect agony, not an inapt emblem of some fashionable exquisites who are to be met with lounging on tip-toe, in all the principal thoroughfares of large cities. The muleteers contend that a tightly laced beast, will travel, or at least support burdens, Avith greater ease ; and though they carry this to an extreme, still we can hardly doubt that a reasonable tension supports and braces the nmscles. It is necessary too for the ajmrcjo to be firmly bound on to prevent its shpping and chafing the mule's back ; indeed, Avith ah these precautions, the back, withers and sides of the poor bmte are often horribly mangled — so much so that I have seen the rib-bones bare, from day to day, while carrying a usual load of three hundred pounds ! The aparejo is also furnished with a huge crupper, which often lacerates the tail most shockingly. It is this packing that leaves most of the lasting cica- trices and marks so common upon Mexican mulea ART OF PACKING. 181 The carga, if a single package, is laid across the mule's back, but when composed of two, they are placed lengthwise, side by side ; and being coupled witli a cord, they are bound upon the apnrejo with a long rope of sea- grass or raw-hide, which is so skilfully and tensely twined about the packages as eliectual- ly to secure them upon the animal. The mule is at first so tightly bound that it seems scarce- ly able to move ; but the weight of the pack soon settles the aparejo, and so loosens the girths and cords as frequently to render it ne- cessary to tighten them again soon after getting under way. It keeps most of the muleteers actively employed during the day, to main- tain the packs in condition ; for they often lose their balance and sometimes fall off This is done without detaming the atajo (drove of pack-mules), the rest of w^hich travel on Avhile one is stopped to adjust its disordered pack. Indeed it is apt to occasion much trouble to stop a heavily laden atajo ; for, if allowed a momenf s rest, the mules are inclined to lie down, when it is with much difficulty they can rise again with their loads. In their ef- forts to do so they sometimes so strain their loins as to injure them ever after. The day's travel is made without a nooning respite ; for the consequent unloading and reloading would consume too much time : and as a heavily-packed atajo should rarely continue en route more than five or six hours, the Jor- nada de recua (day's journey of a pack-drove) is usually but twelve or fifteen miles. 16 182 ARRIEROS AND It is truly remarkable to observe with what dexterity and skill the Arrieros, or muleteers, harness and adjust the packs of merchandise upon their beasts. Half a dozen usually suffice for forty or fifty mules. Two men are always engaged at a time in the dispatch of each ani- mal, and rarely occupy Rwe minutes in the complete adjustment of his aparejo and carga. In this operation they frequently demonstrate a wonderful degree of skill in the application of their strength. A single man wiU often seize a package, which, on a ' dead hft,' he could hardly have raised from the ground, and mak- ing a fulcrum of his knees and a lever of his arms and body, throw it upon the mule's back with as much apparent ease as if the effort cost him but httle exertion. At stop- ping-places the task of unpacking is exe- cuted with still greater expedition. The pack- ages are piled in a row upon the ground, and in case of rain the aparejos are laid upon them, over which is stretched a covering of mantas de guangocke (sheets of sea-grass texture), which protects the goods against the severest storms ; a ditch also being cut around the pile, to prevent the water from running under- neath. In this Avay freights are carried from point to point, and over the most rugged moun- tain passes at a much cheaper rate than for- eigners can transport their merchandise in wagons, even through a level country. The cheapness of this mode of transportation arises from the very low wages paid to the arrieros, and the little expense incurred to feed XI. I ^ THEIR SYSTEM. 183 both them and the mules. The salaty of the muleteer ranges from two to live dollars per month ; and as their food seldom consists of anything else except corn and frijoles, it can be procured at very little cost. When the arri- eros get any meat at all, it is generally at their own expense. An cdajo is conducted in a very systematic manner, each arriero having his appropriate sphere of action allotted to liim. They have also their regulations and technicalities, which, if not as numerous, are about as unintelligi- ble to the uninitiated as sailors' terms. One person, called the savanero^ has the charge of the mules at night, which are all turned loose without tether or hopple, with the mulera or bell-mare, to prevent them from straying abroad. Although the attachment of the mules to the mulera appears very great, it seems to be about as much for the bell as for the animal. What the queen-bee is to a hive, so is the mulera to an atajo. No matter what may be the temper of a mule, it can seldom be driven away from her ; and if she happen to be taken from among her associates, the latter immediately become depressed and melancholy, and ramble and whinny in every direction, as if they were completely lost. In addition to preparing food for the party, it is the office of the madre (or mother, as the cook of the company is facetiously called) to lead the mulera ahead, during the journey, after which the whole pack follows in orderly pro- cession. 194 EQUESTRIANS^ FEATS. The muleteers, as well as the vaqueros (cow-herds), are generally mounted upon swift and well-trained horses, and in their manage- ment of the animals will often perform many surprising feats, Avliich would grace an eques- trian circus in any country ; such, for instance, as picking up a dollar from the ground at every pass with the horse at full gallop. But the greatest display of skill and agihty con- sists in theh dextrous use of the lazo or Icireat^^ which is usually made of horse-hair, or sea- grass tightly twisted together, with a conve- nient noose at one end. Their aim is always more sure when the animal to be caught is running at full speed, for then it has no time to dodge the lareat. As soon as the noose is cast, the lazador fetches the end of his lazo a turn round the high pommel of his saddle, and by a quick manoeuvre the wildest horse is brought up to a stand or topsy-turv}^ at his pleasure. By this process, the head of the animal is turned towards his subduer, who, in order to obtain the mastery over him more completely, seldom fails to throw a hozal (or half-hitch, as boatmen would say) around the nose, though at full rope's length. If the object of pursuit happens to be a cow or an ox, the lazo is usually thrown about the horns instead of the neck. Two vaqueros^ * LflSNo and laruii, as most usually written, are evidently cor- ruptions of the Spanish lazo and la reata (the latter with the arti- cle la compounded), both meaning kinds of rope. I have there- fore preferred retaining the orthography indicated by their etymo- loi^. USE OF THE LAZO. 185 each with his rope to the horns, will thus sub- ject the wildest and most savage bull, pro- vided they are mounted upon well-trained steeds. While the infuriated animal makes a hinge at one of his pursuers, the other wheels round and pulls upon his rope, which always brings the beast about in the midst of his ca- reer ; so that between the two he is jerked to and fro till he becomes exhausted and ceases to m^ke any further resistance. The use of the lazo is not confined to the arrieros and vaque- ros, although these generally acquire most skill in that exercise: it prevails in every rank of life ; and no man, especially among the rancheros, would consider his education com- plete until he had learned this national ac- complishment. They acquire it in fact from infancy ; for it forms one of the principal ru- ral sports of children, who may daily be seen with their lazitos, noosing the dogs and chick- ens about the yards, in every direction. The lazo is often employed also as a 'wea- pon' both offensive and defensive. In skir- mishes with the Indians, the mounted vaquero^ if haplessly wtliout arms, Avill throw this for- midable object round the neck or the body of his enemy, who, before he has time to disen- cumber himself, is jerked to the ground and dragged away at full speed ; when, if his brains are not beaten out against the stones, roots, or trees, he becomes at least so stunned and disabled that the lazador can dispatch him at his leisure. The panther, the bear, and other ferocious animals of the mountains and 16* L86 FIERKO AND VENTA. prairies, are also successfully attacked in this manner. The laws and customs of the country with regard to the ownership of animals are very annoying to the inexperienced foreign travel- ler. No matter how many proprietors a horse or mule may have had, everyone marks hirn with a huge hieroglyphic brand, which is call- ed the Jierro^ and again, upon selling him, with his venta^ or sale-brand ; until at last these scars become so multiplied as to render it impossible for persons not versed in this species of 'heraldry,' to determine whether the animal has been properly vented or not : yet any jierro without its corresponding venta lays the beast liable to the claim of the brand- er. Foreigners are the most frequently sub- jected to this kind of imposition ; and when a party of cstrangeros enters any of the southern towns, they are immediately surrounded by a troop of loungers, who carefully examine eve- ry horse and mule ; when, should they by chance discover any unvented brand, they im- mediately set to work to find some one with a branding-iron of the same shape, by which the beast is at once claimed and taken ; for in all legal processes the only proof required of the claimant is his j^^'rro, or branding-iron, which, if found to assimilate in shape with the mark on the animal, decides the suit in his favor. A colonel in Chihuahua once claimed a mule of me in this manner, but as I was convinced that I had bought it of the legitimate owner, T refused to give it up. The officer, unwilUng THE BaRRO. 187 to lose his prize, started immediately for the alcalde, in hopes of inducing that functionary to lend him the aid of the law ; but during his absence I caused the shoulder of the ani- mal to be shorn, so that the venta became dis- tinctly visible. As soon as the discovery was made known to the colonel and his judge, they made a precipitate exit, as though con- scious of detected fraud. But Avhile I fully acknowledge the preten- sions of the mule, as an animal of general usefulness, I must not forget paying a passing tribute to that meek and unostentatious mem- ber of the brute family, the ' patient ass ;' or, as it is familiarly called by tlie natives, el burro. This docile creature is here emphatically the ' poor man's friend,' being turned to an infi- nite variety of uses, and always submissive under the heaviest burdens. He is not only made to carry his master's grain, his fuel, his water, and his luggage, but his wife and his children. Frequently the whole family is stowed away together upon one diminutive donkey* In fact, the chief riding animal of the peasant is the burro, upon which saddle, bridle, or halter, is seldom used. The rider, seated astride his haunches instead of his back, guides the docile beast with a bludgeon which he carries in his hand. Nothing, perhaps, has been more system- atically attended to in New Mexico than the raising of sheep. When the territory was at the zenith of its prosperity, ranchos were to be met with upon the borders of every sti-eam, 188 - SHEEP AND SHEPHERDS. and in the vicinity of every mountain where water was to be had. Even upon the arid and desert plains, and many miles away from brook or pond, immense flocks were driven out to pasture, and only taken to water once in two or three days. On these occasions it is customary for the shepherds to load their burros with gua^es filled with water, and re- turn again with their folds to the plains. The guage is a kind of gourd, of which there are some beautilul specimens with two bulbs; the intervening neck ser\ing to retain the cord by which it is carried. These itinerant herds of sheep generally pass the night Avherever the evening finds them, without cot or enclosure. Before night- fiall the principal shepherd sallies forth in search of a suitable site for his hato^ or tem- porary sheep-fold ; and building a fire on the most convenient spot, the sheep generally draw near it of their own accord. Should they incline to scatter, the shepherd then seizes a torch and performs a circuit or two around the entire fold, by which manoeuvre, in their efforts to avoid him, the heads of the sheep are all turned iuAvards ; and in that condition they generally remain till morning, without once attempting to stray. It is unnecessary to add that the flock is well guarded during the night by watchful and sagacious dogs against prowlin«f wolves or other animals of prey. The well-trained shepherd's dog of this country is indeed a prodigy : two or three o^' them vnW follow a flock of sheep for a dis THE SHEEP-TRADE. 189 tance of several miles as orderly as a shep- herd, and drive them back to the pen again at night, without any other guidance than their own extraordinary instincts. In former times there were extensive pro- prietors who had their ranchos scattered over half the province, in soma cases amounting to from three to five hundred thousand head of sheep. The custom has usually been to farm out the ewes to the rancheros, who make a retiun of twenty per cent, upon the stock m merchantable carneros — a term applied to sheep generally, and particularly to wethers fit for market. Sheep may be reckoned the staple produc- tion of New Mexico, and the principal article of exportation. Between ten and twenty years ago, about 200,000 head were annually driven to the southern markets ; indeed, it is asserted, that, during the most flourishing times, as many as 500,000 were exported in one year. Tliis trade has constituted a profita- ble business to some of the ricos of the coun- try. They would buy sheep of the poor ran- cheros at from fifty to seventy-five cents per head, and sell them at from one to two hun- dred per cent, advance in the southern mar- kets. A large quantity of wool is of course produced, but of an inferior quality. Incon- siderable amounts have been introduced into the United States via JVIissouri, which have sometimes been sold as low as fifteen cents per pound. It is bought, however, at the New Mexican ranchos at a ve^y low rate — 190 INDIAN RAVAGES. three or four cents per pound, or (as more generally sold) per fleece, which will average, perhaps, but httle over a pound. Yet, from the superiority of the pasturage and climate, New Mexico might doubtless grow the finest wool in the world. In conformity with their char- acteristic tardiness in improvement, however, the natives have retained their original stocks, which are wretchedly degenerate. They for- merly sheared their flocks chiefly for their health, and rarely preserved the fleece, as their domestic manufactures consumed but a comparatively small quantity. But the ganado inenor, or small beasts of pasture (that is, sheep and goats in general), have of late been very much reduced in quantity ; havmg suffered to a deplorable ex- tent from the frequent inroads of the abori- ginal ' lords of the soil,' who, every now and then, whenever hunger or caprice prompts them, attack the ranches, murder the shep- herds, and drive the sheep away in flocks of thousands. Indeed, the Indians have been heard to observe, that they would long before this have destroyed every sheep in the coun- try, but that they prefer leaving a few behind for breeding purposes, in order that their Mexi- can shepherds may raise them new supplies! The sheep of New Mexico are exceedingly small, with very coarse wool, and scarcely fit for anything else than mutton, for which, in- deed, they are justly celebrated. Their flesh has a peculiarly delicious flavor, and is reck- oned by epicures to be far superior to our best MILCH GOATS, ETC. 191 venison ; owing probably in part to the excel- lence of the grass upon which they feed. The flesh of the sheep is to the New Mexi- can what that of the hog is to the people of our Western States, — while pork is but sel- dom met with in Northern Mexico. The sheep there are also remarkable for horny appendages, which frequently branch out in double or triple pairs, giving the head a very whimsical and grotesque appearance. I have seen some of them with at least six separate horns, each pointing in a different direction. Although the raising of goats has not been made so much of a business as the raising of sheep, the former are nevertheless to be found in great abundance. Their milk is much more generally used than that of the coav, not only because it is sweeter and richer, but because the goat, hke the hurro^ sustains itself upon the mere rubbish that grows in the mountain passes, and on the most barren hills, where cows could not exist without being regularly fed. The flesh of the goat is coarse, but wholesome, and being cheaper than mut- ton or beef, it is very freely used by the poor. That of the kid is hardly sin-passed for deh- cacy and sweetness. With regard to domestic fowls, it may be worthy of remark, that there is not to be found, as I believe, in all New Mexico^ a sin- gle species (saving half a dozen turkeys per- haps, and a few pigeons), except the common hen, of which, however, there is a sufficient 192 THE IJRIZZLY BEAll. abundance. The i^oose, the duck, the pea- cock, etc., are aUogether unknown. Of wild anhnals there is not so great a va- riety as in the southern districts of the repub- lic, where they are found in such abundance. The hkick and grizzhj hear, which are met with , in the mountains, do not appear to possess^ the great degree of ferocity, however, for which the latter especially is so much famed further noi1h. It is true they sometimes de- sc(uid from the mountains into the corn-fields, and wonderful stories are told of dreadful combats between them and the lahra (lores ; but judging from a httle adventure I once witnessed, wdth an old female of the grizzly species, encountered by a party of us along the borders of the great prairies, I am not dispos- ed to consider either their ferocity or their boldness very terrible. Our company had just halted at noon, to take refreshments, when we perceived a group of these interesting animals, — a dam with a few cubs fully as large as common wolves, — l)usily scratching among the high grass in an adjacent valley, as if in search of roots or in- sects. Some of our party immediately started jifter the brutes, in hopes of getting a 'shot nt them, in which, however, they were disap- pointed. One or two 'runners,' who had fol- lowed on horseback, then made a desperate charge upon the enemy, but the old monster fled to the thickets, without even so much as turning once upon her pursuers, although one of her cubs was killed, and the remainder A BEAR SCRAPE. 193 were scattered in different directions, during the general scamper. The sequel of the advejiture served to con- hrni nie in the opinion 1 had of the exagge- rated stories in regard to these much dreaded animals. We had in our company a giant blacksmith and general repairer of wagons, named Campbell, who measured full six feet eight in his stockings, and was besides, ele- gantly proportioned. Independently of his uni- versal utility as ' Jack-of-all-trades,' our colossal friend was in such constant requisition, that he might well have given origin to the western phrase of ojie's being ' a whole team ;' for if a wagon happened to be in the mire, he was worth more than the whole team to extract it He was, in short, the most appropriate subject for a regular grizzly-bear scrape. On the oc- casion I speak of, Campbell had laid himself down under the shade of a bush, upon the brink of a precipice about ten feet high, and was taking a comfortable snooze, while his companions were sporting in the neighbor- hood. During the chase, one of the young bears, which had been scared from its mother, was perceived loping down the trail towards our camp, apparently heedless of the com- pany. Several of us seized our guns, and as it sprang across the ravine through a break near the spot where Campbell lay, we gave it a salute, which caused it to tumble back wounded into the branch, with a frightful yell. Campbell being suddenly roused by the noise, started up with the rapidity of lightning, and J7 194 WOLVES AND GAME. tumbled over the precipice upon the bear " AVhauh !" growled master brain — " Mur- der !" screamed the giant — " Clinch it, Camp- bell, or you're gone !" exclaimed his com- rades ; for no one could venture to shoot for fear of kiUing the man. The latter, however, had no notion of closing clutches with his long-clawed antagonist, but busied himself in vain attempts to clamber up the steep bank ; while the bear rising upon his hinder legs, and staring a moment at the huge frame of the blacksmith, soon made up his mind as to the expediency of 'turning tail,' and finally succeeded in making his escape, notwith- standing a volley of shot that were fired after him. The large gray wolf of the Prairies is also to be found in great abundance in Northern Mexico. They sometimes make dreadful havoc among the cattle, frequently kilhng and devouring even mules and horses ; but they never extend their rapacity so far as to attack human beings, unless urged by starvation. There are other animals of prey about the mountains, among wliich the panther is most conspicuous. Elk and deer are also to be met with, but not in large quantities. Of the latter, the species known as the hhck'tailed deer is the most remarkable. It difters but httle from the common buck, except that it is of darker color and its tail is bordered Avith black, and tliat, though its legs are shorter, its body is larger. The carnero mnarron or bighorn of BIRDS, REPTILES, ETC. 195 the Eocky Mountains — the herrendo or an- telope and the tnza or prairie dog of the plains — hares, polecats, and other animals of lesser importance, may also be considered as denizens of these regions. Of wild birds, the water fowls are the most numerous ; the ponds and rivers being lite- rally lined at certain seasons of the year with myriads of geese, ducks, cranes, etc. In some of the mountains, wild turkeys are very nu- merous ; but partridges and quails are scarce. There is to be found in Chihuahua and other southern districts a very beautiful bird called paisano (literally ' countryman'), which, when domesticated, performs all the offices of a cat in ridding the dwelling-houses of mice and other vermin. It is also said to kill and de- vour the rattlesnake ; a reptile, however, which seems much less vicious here than elsewhere. Scorpions, tarantulas and centipedes also, al- though found in this proAdnce, are almost harm- less, and very httle dreaded by the natives. Another indigenous reptile is the horned-frog of the Prairies, known here by the name of ca- inaleon (or chameleon), of wliichit is probably a species, as its color has been observed to vary a little in accordance with the character of the soil it inhabits. The koney-hee would appear to have origi- nated exclusively from the east, as its march has been observed westward, but none have yet reached this portion of the Mexican do- minion. According to ancient historians, dif- ferent species were indigenous to the south of 196 THE HONEY-BEE. tlie republic ; but in the north, the only insect of the kind more resembles the bumble-bee than that of our hives ; and builds in rocks and holes in the ground, in some parts of the mountains. They unite in but small num- bers (some dozens together), and seldom make over a few ounces of honey, which is said, however, to be of agreeable flavor. As to flies^ like the high plains, this dry climate is but httle infested — particularly with the more noxious kinds. Fresh meats are preserved and dried in mid-summer Avithout difficulty, as there are very few blow-flies. Horse-flies are not seen except sometimes in the mountains : the prairie-fly, so tormenting to stock with us in the West, is unknown. CHAPTER X. Condition of the Arts and Sciences in New Mexico — Neglect of Education — Primary Schools — Geographical Ignorance — Female Accoinplishinents — Imported Refinements — Peculiari- ties of Language, etc. — Condition of the Public Press — State of Medical Science — The jVIechanical Arts — Carpentry and Cabinet Work — Stale of Architecture — Dwelling Houses and their Peculiarities — Rustic Furniture — Curiously constructed Vehicles — Manufacture of Blankets — Other Fabrics — Want of ^Machinery. There is no part of the civilized globe, per- haps, where the Arts have been so much neglected, and the progress of Science so suc- cessfully impeded as in New Mexico. Read- ing and writing may fairly be set down as the liighest branches of education that are taught in the schools ; for those pedants who occasionally pretend to teach arithmetic, very seldom understand even the primary rules of the science of numbers. I should perhaps make an exception in favor of those ecclesi- astics, who have acquired their education abroad ; and who, from their vocation, are necessarily obhged to possess a smattering of Latin. Yet it is a well known fact that the majority of this privileged class, even, are la- mentably deficient in the more important 17* 198 WAJS'T OF SCHOOLS. branches of familiar science. I have been assured by a higlily respectable foreigner, who has long resided in the country, that the questions were once deliberately put to him by a curate — whether Napoleon and Washing- ton were not one and the saine person, and whether Europe was not a province of Spain ! From the earliest time down to the seces- sion of the colonies, it was always the poUcy of the Spanish Government as well as of the papal hierarchy, to keep every avenue of knowledge closed against their subjects of the New AA^orld ; lest the lights of civil and religious liberty should reach them from their neighbors of the North. Although a system of public schools was afterwards adopted by the republic, which, if persevered in, would no doubt have contributed to the dissemina- tion of useful knowledge, yet its operations had to be suspended about ten years ago, for want of the necessary funds to carry out the original project. It is doubtful, however, whether the habitual neglect and utter care- lessness of the people, already too much in- ured to grope their way in darkness and in ignorance, added to the inefficiency of the teachers, would not eventually have neutrahzed all the good that such an institution was cal- culated to effect. The only schools now in existence, are of the lowest primaiy class, sup- ported entirely by individual patronage, the liberal extension of which, may be inferred from the fact, that at least three-fourths of the present population can neither read nor write. FEMALE EDUCATION. 199 To illustrate the utter absence of geographi- cal information among the humbler classes, it is only necessary to mention that I have been asked by persons, who have enjoyed a long intercourse with Americans, whether the United States was as large a place as the town of Santa Fe ! Female education has, if possible, been more universally neglected than that of the other sex ; whiJe those who have received any instruction at all, have generally been taught in private families. Indeed, until very lately, to be able to read and write on the part of a woman, was considered an indication of very extraordinary talent ; and the fair dam- sel who could pen a billet-doux to her lover, was looked upon as almost a prodigy. There is, however, to be found among the higher classes a considerable sprinkling of that su- perficial refinement which is the bane of fashionable society everywhere, and which consists, not in superiority of understand- ing, not in acquired knowledge, but in that pecuhar species of assumption, which has happily been styled '-the flowing garment with which Ignorance decks herself" Yet, notwithstanding this dreadful state of ignorance on all those subjects which it be- hooves man to be acquainted with, it is truly astonishing to notice the correctness with which the common people speak their mother tongue, the Spanish. The appUcation of words out of their classical sense may occa- sionally occur, but a violation of the simple 200 ]MEXICAN PRONUNCIATION. grammatical rules (which is so common among the illiterate who use the EngUsh language), is extremely rare. In pronunciation, the only- material difference between them and the Castilian race, consists in the adoption of cer- tain provincialisms, which can hardly be rank- ed as defects. Thus, instead of giving c before e and % and z in all cases, the Castilian Usp of th as in thin, they sound both like s in sin ; and instead of pronouncing // as the Italian liquid gl in seraglio, they sound this double letter precisely like y in yes ; and in writing, frequently confound the // and y indiscrimi- nately together. These may be considered as their only peculiarities of pronunciation, and they prevail through most sections of the re- pubUc. In fact, this point of difference is looked upon by many with national pride, as distinguishing their language from that of their former oppressors. They have also adopt- ed many significant Indian words from their aboriginal predecessors and neighbors, which serve to embellish and amplify this already beautiful and copious language. In nothing is tlie deplorable state of things already noticed made more clearly manifest, than in the absence of a public press. There has never been a single newspaper or periodi- cal of any kind published in New Mexico, except in the year 1834, when a little foolscap sheet (entitled El Crepuscido) was issued weekly, for about a month, to the tune of fifty subscribers, and was then abandoned, partial' ly for want of patronage and partially because LACK OF NEWSPAPERS. 201 the editor had accomplished his object of pro- curing his ejection to Congress. Indeed, the only printing press in the country is a small affair which was brought the same year across the prairies from the United States, and is now employed occasionally in printing bil- lets, primers and Catholic catechisms. This literary negligence is to be attributed, not more to the limited immber of reading people, than to those injudicious restrictions upon that freedom of the press, which is so essential to its prosperity. An editor attempting to arraign the conduct of public functionaries, or to op- pose 'the powers that be,' is sure to subject himself to persecution, and most probably suspension, a tyrannical course of proceeding which has checked the career of two or three papers even among the more enhghtened in- habitants of Chihuahua; where a miserable organ of the Government is still occasionally issued from the office of the Imprenta del Gohierno, or Government Press. No wonder then that the people of Northern Mexico are so much behind their neighbors of the United States in intelligence, and that the pulse of national industry and liberty beats so low ! Medical science is laboring under similar disadvantages ; there being not a single native physician in the province^ ; although a great multitude of singular cures are daily perform- ed with indigenous roots and herbs that grow * Neither is there a professed lawyer in New Mexico : a fact which at least speaks favorably of the state of litigation in the country. 202 DOCTORS AND THEIR BILLS. in abundance all over the country. But lest a knowledge of this scarcity of doctors should induce some of the Esculapian faculty to strike for Santa Fe in quest of fortune, I would remark that the country affords very poor patronage. Foreign physicians Avho have visited New Mexico, have found the prac- tice quite unprofitable ; not more for the want of patients, than on account of the poverty of the people. Nine-tenths of those who are most subject to disease, are generally so desti- tute of means, that the only return they can make, is, ''Dios se lo pague'' (May God pay you !) Even the more affluent classes do not hesi- tate sometimes to hquidate their bills in the same currency. A French doctor of Santa Fe, who had been favored with too many pay- ments of this description, was wont to rebuke their ^^ Dios se lopagioe'^ with a " No, seTior, su bolsa me lo pagarcV — No, sir, your purse shall pay me ! The mechanical arts have scarcely risen above the condition they were found in among the aborigines. Gold and silversmiths are perhaps better skilled in their respective trades than any other class of artisans whatever ; as the abundance of precious metals in former days, and the ruHng passion of the people for ostentatious show, gave a very early stimulus to the exercise of this peculiar talent. Some mechanics of this class have produced such singular specimens of ingenious workman- ship, that on examining them, we are almost unwilling to beUeve that rude art could ac- MEUHAMCAL ARTS. 203 complish so much. Even a bridle-bit or a pair of spurs it would no doubt puzzle the * cutest' Yankee to fasliion after a Mexican model — such as I have seen manufactured by the commonest blacksmiths of the country. hi carpentry and cabinet-work the me- chanic has to labor to great disadvantage, on account of a want of tools and scarcity of suitable timber. Their boards have to be hewed out witii the axe — sawed lumber being absolutely unknown throughout New Mexico; except what is occasionally cut by foreigners. The axe commonly used for splitting and hewing is formed after the model of those clumsy hatchets known as 'squaw-axes' among Indian traders. Yet this is not unfre- quently the only tool of the worker in wood: a cart or a plough is often manufactured with- out even an auger, a chisel, or a drawing- knife. In architecture, the people do not seem to have arriv^ed at any great perfection, but rather to have conformed themselves to the clumsy style which prevailed among the aborigines, than to w^aste their time in studying modern masonry and the use of lime. The materials generally used for building are of the crudest possible description ; consisting of unburnt bricks, about eighteen inches long by nine wide and four thick, laid in mortar of mere clay and sand. These bricks are called adobes, and every edifice, from the church to the|9«- lacio, is constructed of the same stuff In fact, I should remark, perhaps, that though all 204 MEXICAN ARCHnECTURE. Southern Mexico is celebrated for the magni- ficence and wealth of its churches, New Mexi- co deserves equal fame for poverty-stricken and shabby-looking houses of jmbUc wor- ship. The general plan of the Mexican dwellhigs is nearly the same everywhere. Whether from motives of pride, or fear of the savages, the wealthier classes have adopted the style of Moorish castles; so that all the larger build- ings have more the appearance of so many diminutive fortifications, than of private fa- mily residences. Let me add, however, that whatever may be the roughness of their ex; terior, Ihey are extremely comfortable inside. A tier of rooms on each side of a square, com- ])rising as many as the convenience of the oc- cupant may require, encompass an open j^^iio or court, with but one door opening into the street, — a huge gate, called la puerta del za- ;:'-?/<^^/?, usually large enough to admit the family coach. The back tier is generally occupied A\qth the rocina, disjyema, granero (kitchen, provision-store, and granary), and other offices of the same kind. Most of the apartments, except the winter rooms, open into the patio; but the latter are most frequently entered through the sala or hall, which, added to the thickness of their walls and roofs, renders them delightfully warm during the cold sea- 'son. while they are perfectly cool and agreeable in summer. In fact, hemmed in as these apartments are with nearly three feet of earth, they may be said to possess all the pleasant DWELLING-HOUSES. 205 properties of cellars, with a freer circulation of air, and nothing of the dampness which is apt to pervade those subterranean regions. The roofs of the houses are all flat azotcas or terraces, being formed of a layer of earth two or three feet in thickness, and supported by stout joists or horizontal rafters. These roofs, when well packed, turn the rain off with remarkable eiiect, and render the houses nearly fire-proofs The azotea also forms a pleasant promenade, the surrounding walls rising usually so high as to serve for a balus- trade, as also a breast- work, behind which, in times of trouble, the combatants take their station, and defend the premises. The floors are all constructed of beaten earth 'slicked over' with soft mortar, and co- vered generally with a coarse carpet of do- mestic manufacture. A plank floor would be quite a curiosity in New Mexico ; nor have I met with one even in Chihuahua, although the best houses in that cit}^ are floored with brick or squares of hewn stone. The interior of each apartment is roughly plastered over with a clay mortar unmixed with lime, by fe- males who supply the place of ti'owels with their hands. It is then white washed w^ith * During; a residence of nearly nine years in the country, I never witnessed but one fire, and that was in the mining town of Jesus Maria. There a roof of pine clap-boards is usually ex- tended over the azoiea, to protect it against the mountain torrents of rain. This roof was consumed, but the principal damajje sus- tained, in addition, was the burning of a huge pile of corn and. some bags of -flour, which were in the garret : the body of the building remained nearly in statu quo. IS 206 SUBTERRENE DWELLJN'Gg. calcined yeso or gypsum, a deleterious stuff, tliat is always sure to engraft its affections up- on the clothing of those who come in contact with it. To obviate this, the parlors and fa- mily rooms are usually lined with wall-papei or cahco, to the height of five or six feet. The front of the house is commonly plastered in a similar manner, although not always white- washed. In the suburbs of the towns, and particularly in the villages and ranchos, a fan- tastic custom prevails of pamting only a por- tion of the fronts of the houses, in the shape of stripes, which imparts to the landscape a very striking and picturesque appearance. Wood buildings of any kind or shape are utterly unknown in the north of Mexico, with the exception of an occasional picket-hut in some cf the ranchos and mining-places. It will readily be perceived, then, what a flat and uncouth appearance the towns of New Mexico present, with houses that look more hke so many collections of brick-kilns pre- pared for burning than human abodes. The houses of the villages and ranchos are rarely so spacious as those of the capital, yet their construction is much the same. Some verv sinsrular subterrene dwellino^s are to be found in a few places. I was once passing through the \dllage of Casa Colorada, when I observed some noisy urcWIns just before me, who very suddenly and mysteriously disap- peared. Upon resorting to the spot, I per- ceived an aperture under a hillock, which, albeit considerably larger, was not very RUSTIC SOFAS. 207 unlike tlie habitations of the httle prairie dogs. The immense expense attending the pur- chase of suitable furniture and Idtchen-wiue, indeed, the frequent impossibihty of obtaining these articles at any price, caused the early settlers of Northern Mexico to resort to inven- tions of necessity, or to adopt Indian cus- toms altogether, many of which have been found so comfortable and convenient, that most of those who are now able to indulge in luxuries, feel but little inclination to introduce any change. Even the few pine -board chairs .and settees that are to be found about the houses are seldom used ; the prevaiUng fash- ion being to fold mattrasses against the walls, which, being covered over with blankets, are thus converted into sofas. Females, indeed, most usually prefer accommodating them- selves, a rindienne, upon a mere blanket spread simply upon the floor. Wagons of Mexican manufacture are not to be found; although a small number of American-built vehicles, of those introduced by the trading caravans, have grown into use among the people. Nothing is more calcu- lated to attract the curiosity of strangers than the unwieldy cairetas or carts of domestic construction, the massive wheels of which are generally hewed out of a large cotton- wood. This, however, being rarely of sufli- cient size to form the usual diameter, which is about five feet, an additional segment or felloe is pinned upon each edge, when the 209 PRIMITIVE CARTS. whole is fashioned into an irregular circle. A crude pine or cottonwood pole serves for Ihe axle-tree, upon which is tied a rough fmrne of the same material for a body. In the con- struction of these carretas the use of iron is, for the most part, wholly dispensed with ; m. fact, nothing is more common than a cart, a plough, and even <\ mill, v/ithout a particle of iron or other metal about them. To this huge truckle it is necessary to hitch at least three or four yokes of oxen ; for even a team of six would find it difficult to draw the load of a single pair with an ordinary cart. The labor of the oxen is much increased by the Mexi- can mode of harnessin*^, which appears pe- culiarly odd to a Yankee. A rough pole serves for a yoke, arid, with the middle tied to the cart-tongue, the extremities are placed across the heads of the oxen behind the horns, to which they are firmly lashed with a stout raw- hide thong. Thus the head is maintained in a fixed position, and they pull, or rather pusl? by the force of the neck, which, of course, is kept continually strained upwards. Rough and uncouth as these carretas al- ways are, they constitute nevertheless the 'pleasure-carriages' of the rancheros, whose fmiiUes are conveyed in them to the towns, \vhether to market, or to fiestas, or on other joyful occasions. It is truly amusing to see these rude vehicles bouncing along upon their irregularly rounded wheels, like a limping bullock, and making the hills and valleys DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES. 209 around vocal with the echo of their creaking and frightful sounds. The New Mexicans are celebrated for the manufacture of coarse blankets, which is an article of considerable traffic between them and the southern provinces, as also with the neighboring Indians, and on some occasions with the United States. The finer articles are curiously Avoven in handsome figures of various colors. These are of different quali- ties, the most ordinary being valued at about two dollars apiece, while those of the finest texture, especially their imitations of the Sa- rape Navajo, will sell for twenty dollars or more. There have also been made in New Mexico a few imitations of the Sarape Sal- tillero, — the blanket of Saltillo, a city of the south celebrated for the manufacture of the most splendid fancy blankets, singularly figur- ed with all the colors of the rainbow. These are often sold for more than fifty dollars each. What renders the weaving of the fancy blan- kets extremely tedious, is, that the variegation of colors is all effected with the shuttle, the texture in other respects being perfectly plain, without even a twill. An additional value is set upon the fine sarape on account of its be- ing a fashionable substitute for a cloak. ' In- deed, the inferior sarape is the only over- dress used by the peasantry in the winter. Besides blankets, the New Mexicans manu- facture a kind of coarse twilled woollen stuff, called gerga, which is checkered with black and white, and is used for carpets, and also 210 WANT OF xMACHINERT. by the peasantry for clothing, which, in fact, with some other similar domestic stuffs, to- gether with buckskin, constituted almost the only article of wear they were possessed of, till the trade from Missouri furnished them with foreign fabrics at more reasonable prices- than they had been in the habit of paying to the traders of the southern provinces. Their domestic textures are nearly all of wool, there being no flax or hemp^ and but little cotton spun. The manufacture even of these arti- cles is greatly embarrassed for want of good spinning and wea\dng machinery. Much of the spinning is done with the huso or mala- cote (the whirligig spindle), which is kept whirling in a bowl with the Angers while the thread is drawn. The dexterity with Avhich the females spin with this simple apparatus is truly astonishing. * Hemp is unknown in this province, and flax, as has before been remarked, thou«;h indigenous, is nowhere cultivated. " The court of Spain (as Clavigero tells us, speaking of ]Michuacan, New Mexico, and Quivira, where he says fiax was to be found in great abundance), informed of the regions adapted to the cultiva- tion of this plant, sent to those countries, about the year 1778, twelve families from the valley of Granada, for the purpose of promoting so important a branch of agriculture." The enterprise se^ms never to have been prosecuted, however — at least in New Mexico. CHAPTER XI. Style of D».'' « in New Mexico — Riding-dress of the Caballero— Horse Tr%>.pping:s — The Rebozo — Passion for Jewelry — Ap- parel of the Female Peasantry — ' Wheeled Tarantulas' — Gene- ral Appearance of the People — Tawny Complexion — Singu- lar Mode of Painting the Human Face — Striking Ti aits of Character — Alms-giving — Beggars and their Tricks — Won- derful Cure of Paralysis — Lack of Arms and Officers — Traits of Boldness among the Yeomanry — Politeness and Suavity of the Mexicans — Remarks of Mr. Poinsett — Peculiarities ob- served in epistolary Intercourse — Salutations — La Siesta. The best society in the interior of New Mexico is fast conforming to European fash- ion, in the article of dress, with the exception of the peculiar riding costume, which is still worn by many cahalleros. This generally con- sists of a sombrero-—^ peculiarly shaped low crowned hat Avith mde brim, covered with oil-cloth and surmounted with a band of tinsel cord nearly an inch in diameter : a chaqueta or jacket of cloth gaudily embroidered with braid and fancy barrel-buttons : a curiously shaped article called calzoneras^ intended for panta- loons, with the outer part of the legs open from hip to ankle — the borders set with tink- ling fihgree buttons, and the whole fantastical- ly trimmed with tinsel lace and cords of the 212 COSTUMK AND TRAPPiNGS OF same materials. As suspenders do not form a component part of a regular Mexican cos- tume, the nether garment is supported by a rich sash wliich is drawn very tightly around the body, and contributes materially to ren- der the whole appearance of the cahaUe.ro extremely picturesque. Then there are the hotas which somewhat resemble the leggins worn by the bandits of Italy, and are made of embossed leather, embroidered Avith fancy silk and tinsel thread and bound around the knee with cmiously tasselled garters. The sarape saltillero (a fancy blanket) com- pletes the picture. This peculiarly useful as well as ornamental garment is commonly carried dangUng carelessly across the pom- mel of the saddle, except in bad weather, when it is drawn over the shoulders, after the manner of a Spanish cloak, or as is more frequently the case, the rider puts liis head through a slit in the middle, and by let- ting it hang loosely from the neck, his whole person is thus effectually protected. The steed of the caballero is caparisoned in the same pompous manner, the whole of the saddle trappings weighing sometimes over a hundred pounds. First of all we have the high pommel of the saddle-ti*ee crowned with silver, and the 'hinder tree' garnished with the same, and a quilted cusliion adjusted to the seat. The coraza is a cover of embossed leather embroidered with fancy silk and tinsel, with ornaments of silver, and is thrown loose over the cushion and fn^te or saddle-tree, the THh; IvlbJXlCA.N iiuilSLMxVN. I J extremities of which protrude through appro- priate apertures. Then comes the cola depato, literally 'duck's tail' (it were more appropri- ately called 'peacock's tail'), a sort of leathern housing, also gaudily ornamented to correspond ^with the coraza, attached to the hind-tree, and covering the entire haunches of the animal The estrihos or stirrups are usually made either of bent or mortised wood, fancifully carved, over which are fastened the tapaderas or cov- erings of leather to protect the toes. For- merly the stirrups constituted a complete slip- per, mortised in a sohd block of wood, which superseded the use of tapaderas. But one of the most costly articles of the saddle-suit is perhaps the bridle, which is sometimes of en- tire silver, or otherwise heavily ornamented with silver buckles, slides and stars. To this 214 SADDLE EQUIPAGE. is appended a massive bit, sometimes of pm'c silver, but more commonly of iron, most sin- gularly wrought. The spurs are generally of iron, though silver spurs are very frequent. The shanks of the vaquero spurs are three to five inches long, with rowels sometimes six inches in diameter. I have in my possession a pair of these measuring over ten inches from one extremity to another, with rowels five and three-fourths inches in diameter, weighing two pounds and eleven ounces. Last, not least, there are the armas de pelo, be- ing a pair of shaggy goat skins (richly trimmed across the top with embroidered leather), dan- gling from the pommel of the saddle for the purpose of being drawn over the legs in case of rain, or as a protection against brush and brambles. The corazas of travelling saddles are also provided with several pockets called coginillos — a most excellent contrivance for carrying a lunch or bottle, or anything to which convenient access may be desired. In former times there was a kind of harness of leather attached to the saddle behind, cov- ering the hinder parts of the horse as low as mid-thighs, with its lower border completely fringed with jingUng iron tags, but these are now seldom met with in the North. Even without this noisy appendage, however, a Mex- ican cabal lero of the present day, with full equestrian rigging, his clink and his rattle, makes altogether a very remarkable appear- ance. Though the foregoing description refers par ladies' fashions. 215 ticularly to the chivalrous caballero of the South — the rico of the country, yet similar modes of costume and equipage, but of coarser material, are used by the lower classes. Nor are they restricted among these to the riding-dress, but are very generally worn as ordinary apparel. Common velveteens, fus- tians, blue drillings and similar stufis, are very much in fashion among such rancheros and villageois as are able to wear anything above the ordinary woollen manufactures of the country. Coarse avooI hats, or of palm-leaf [sombreros de jjetate), all of low crowns, are the kind generally worn by the common peo- ple. As I have already observed, among the bet- ter classes the European dress is now fre- quently worn ; although they are generally a year or two beliind our latest fashions. The ladies, however, never wear either hat, cap or bonnet, except for riding; but in lieu of it, especially when they walk abroad, the rehozo (or scarf), or a large shawl, is drawn over the head. The rehozo is by far the most fashiona- ble : it is seven or eight feet in length by nearly a yard in width, and is made of divers stuffs — silk, linen or cotton, and usually va- riegated and figured in the warp by symmetri- cally disposed threads waved in the dying. It is certainly a beautiful specimen of do- mestic manufacture. The finest articles are valued at fifty to a hundred dollars m the North ; but the ordinary cotton rehozo ranges at from one to five dollars, and is generally 21b RANCHERA DRESS. worn by the lower classes. A Mexican fe- male is scarcely ever seen without her rebozo or shawl. exc(^pt when it is laid aside for the dance. In-doors, it is loosely thrown about her person, but in the promenade it is coquet- tish ly drawn over the head, and one end of it brought round, and gracefully hooked over the opposite shoulder. As a favorite modern authoress justly remarks, however, in speak- ing of the rebozo and the sarape, an important objection to their use, in this unsettled society, is the facihty they afford for the concealment of the person, as well as secret weapons of the wearer. Pistols, knives, and even swords are carried unsuspected under the sarape, while a lady fashionably muffled with a rebozo, may pass a crowd of familiar acquaintances with- out being recognized. The ordinary apparel of the female pea- santry and the rancheras^ is the enaguas or pet- ticoat of home-made flannel; or, when they are able to procure it, of coarse blue or scar- let cloth, connected to a wide list of some contrasting-colored stuff, bound around the waist over a loose white chemise, which is the only covering for the body, except Ihe re- bozo. Uncouth as this costume may appear at first, it constitutes nevertheless a very grace- ful sort of undress — in which capacity it is used even by ladies of rank. The New Mexican ladies are all passionate- ly fond of jewelry ; and they may commonly be seen, with their necks, arms and fingers loaded with massive appendages of a valua- THE SWARTHY COMPLEXION. 217 ble description. But as there has been so much imposition with regard to foreign jeAV- ehy, articles of native manufacture, some of which are admirably executed, without alloy or counterfeit, are generally preferred. In New Mexico, caches de paseo of any kind ai'e very rare ; occasionally, however, one of those huge, clumsy, old-fashioned vehicles of Mexican manufacture, so abundant in the southern cities, and often nick-named ' wheel- ed tarantulas,' by strangers, may be seen. Such an apparition in a Yankee city would excite as much curiosity as a caravan of the rarest animals. The coach alone is a load for two mules, therefore the vehicle is usually drawn by four and sometimes six, and inva- riably driven by postilhons. The stature of both sexes in New Mexico is commonly below medium : but they are mostly well proportioned, of athletic make, and sound, healthy constitutions. Their com- plexion is generally dark ; but every variety of shade is found among them, from the lightest European tint to the swarthiest hue. Their darkness has resulted partly from their original Moorish blood, but more from inter- marriages with the aborigines. An occasional Indian, and sometimes an entire village, have abandoned their wonted seclusion, and be- come identified with their conquerors. In the North, the system of Indian slavery has contributed still more to the same result. They buy the captive children of both sexes of the wild tribes, taken prisoners among each other, 19 218 TRAITS OF FEMALE BEAUTY. or by the Pueblos in their petty wars with the former — and indeed by the Mexicans them- selves— who are g^enerally held in bondage to the age of twenty-one years, and some, from ignorance, their whole lives. Such as resume their liberty intermarry with the race of their masters, becoming Mexican citizens, often un- distinguishable from many of the already dark-hued natives. The present race of New Mexicans has thus become an amalgam, ave- raging about equal parts of the European and aboriginal blood. The peasantr}^, as well from a more general intermixture with the Indian, as from exposure, are the darkest ; yet the tawny complexion pervades all classes — the rich as well as the poor. The females, although many of them are about as broad-featured as the veriest Indian, not unfrequently possess striking traits of beauty. They are remarkable for small feet and handsome figures, notwithstanding their profound ignorance of the ' refined art' of lacing. The belles of the ranchos and vil- lages have a disgusting habit of besmearing their faces with the crimson juice of a plant or fruit called alegria, which is not unlike blood ; as also wdth clay and starch. This is not intended, as some travellers have sup- posed, as a beautifying appendage, but for the purpose of protecting the skin from the sun. A country beauty will often remain in this filthy condition for a whole fortnight, in order to appear to advantage at some favorite feast or ball ; when, by washing oft^ the paint, the GENERAL CHARACTER. 219 cheeks look as fresh and ruddy as the natu- ral darkness of their skin will permit. The New Mexicans appear to have inherit- ed much of the cruelty and intolerance of their ancestors, and no small portion of their bigotry and fanaticism. Being of a highly imaginative temperament and of rather ac- commodating moral principles — cunning, lo- quacious, quick of perception and sycophan- tic, their conversation frequently exhibits a degree of tact — a false glare of talent, emi- nently calculated to mislead and impose. They have no stability except in artifice ; no profundity except for intrigue : quaUties lor which they have acquired an unenviable ce- lebrity. Systematically cringing and sub- servient while out of power, as soon as the august mantle of authority falls upon their shoulders, there are but httle bounds to their arrogance and \indictiveness of spirit. While such are the general features of the character of the Northern Mexicans, however, I am faui to beheve and acknowledge, that there are to be found among them numerous instances of uncompromising virtue, good faith and religious forbearance. But taking the Northern Mexicans without distinction of class or degree, there is scarcely a race of people on the face of the earth more alive to the dictates of charity — that is, alms- giving ; which is more owing perhaps to the force of religious instruction than to real sym- pathy for the sufferings of the indigent and the helpless. The law making no provision 220 THI-: LIMOSNEROS. for paupers, there is no country perhaps more infested with beggars, especially from Chihua- hua south. In the large cities, Saturday is the alms-giving day by custom ; and on such occasions the liinosneros (as the mendicant race is called), may be seen promenading the sti'eets in gangs of thirty or forty, or in smaller numbers, performing genuflections at every nook and corner of the town, each croaking aloud his favorite set of orisons and inviting the blessings of heaven upon every man, wo- man or child, who may have been so fortu- nate as to propitiate the benison by casting a few dacos into his outstretched hand. In some sections of the country, this system of begging has proved so successful that parents have actually been known to maim and de- form their children, during the earhest stages of infancy, in order to fit them for the trade, and thereby secure to themselves a constant source of emolument for the remainder of their fives. Persons affecting disease and fre- quently malformation for the purpose of excit- ing the commiseration of the Avayfarer, are also extremely numerous. I had often observ- ed in Chihuahua a robust-looking fellow, who, to all appearance, had partially lost the use of his lower extremities, sfiding about the streets from door to door upon a sort of cushion, ask- ing alms. One fine day, a furious bull, pur- sued by some vaqueros^ came plunging down in the direction where he sat, moaning and grie\dng most piteously ; when, forgetting his physical disabilities, he sprang to his feet with COWARDICE AND TExMElllTY. 221 the agility of a dancing master, and inconti- nently betook himself to his heels. The Northern Mexicans have often been branded with cowardice : a stigma wliich may well be allow^ed to rest upon the wealthier classes, and the city-bred caballeros, from whose ranks are selected the military leaders who decide the fate of battles. But the ran- cheros, or as they might be still more appro- priately styled — the yeomanry of the country, inured as they are from their peculiar mode of life to every kind of fatigue and danger, possess a much higher calibre of moral cou- rage. Their want of firmness in the field, is partially the result of their want of confidence in their commanders ; while the meflficacy and worthlessness of their weapons are alone sufficient to inspire even a vahant heart with dismal forebodings. It is true that most of the; regular troops are provided with Enghsh muskets, which, by the way, they are gene- rally too ignorant to keep in order ; but a great portion of the militia are obliged to use the clumsy old-fashioned escopeta, or firelock of the sixteenth century ; while others have nothing but the bow and arrow, and some- times the lance, which is in fact a weapon very much in use throughout the country. I have seen persons of the lower class do things, however, which would really seem to indicate a superlative degree of courage. Some of them will often perform journeys alone through wildernesses teeming with murder- ous savages: but as they not unfrequently 19* 222 SUAVITY OF MANNERS. embark upon these perilous jaunts unarmed, it is evident they depend greatly upon good luck and swiftness of limbs, and still more upon the protection of then- favorite saint, la Vh'gen de Gvadalupe. The Mexicans, like the French, are remark- able for their politeness and suavity of man- ners. You cannot visit a friend but he assures you that, '^ Estd V. en su casa, ypnede nmndar^'' etc. (You are in your own house, and can command, etc.), or, '^ Estoy entcramente a su disposicion'^ (I am wholly at your disposal), without, however, meaning more than an ex- pression of ordinary courtesy. Nor can you speak in commendation of any article, let its value be what it may, but the pohte owner immediately replies, " Tdmelo, V. SeT.or ; es suijo (Take it, sir; it is yours), without the slightest intention or expectation that you should take him at his word. — Mr. Poinsett obsers^es, " Remember, when you take leave of a Spanish grandee, to bow as you leave the room, at the head of the stairs, where the host accompanies you ; and after descending the first flight, turn round and you will see him expecting a thii'd salutation, which he returns with great courtesy, and remains un- til you are out of sight ; so that as you wind down the stairs, if you catch a glimpse of him, kiss your hand, and he will think you a most accomplished cavalier.*' Graphic as this short sketch is, it hardly describes the full measur.e pf Mexican politeness ; for in that country, when the visitor reaches the SALUTATIONS. 222 street, another tip of the hat, and another in- chnation of the head, will be expected by tlie attentive host, who gently waves, with his hand, a final 'a dios' from a window. In epistolary correspondence, the ratio of respect is generally indicated by the width of the left margin. If the letter is addressed to an equal, about one-fourth of the page is oc- cupied for that purpose ; but when extraordi- nary respect is intended to be shown to a superior, nearly one-half of the page is left a blank. There are other marks of civility and respect pecuUar to the country, which among us would be accounted absolute servility. In their salutations, the ancient custom of close embrace, not only between indi\dduals of the same sex, but between those of differ- ent sexes, is almost universal. It is quite a luxury to meet a pretty senorita after some absence. The parties approach, shake hands in a cordial manner, and without loosening the grasp, the left arm of each is brought about the other's waist ; and while a gentle embrace brings their persons closer to each other, the contact of the cheeks becomes in- evitable— without admitting a kiss, however, which would be held as decidedly indelicate. In short, it is worth while absenting oneself, for the gratification of a first meeting v/ith the prettier of one's female friends upon the return. Among the least unpleasant customs of this country is that of the siesta or afternoon nap ; A species of indulgence in which all classes 224 THE SIESTA. are prone to share. The stores, private and pubUc offices, are, by common consent, gene- rally closed at one o'clock (that being the usual dinner hour), and not reopened till three. During that interval nearly every kind of business and labor is suspended. The streets are comparatively deserted ; the rich and the poor retire to their respective couches, and remain wrapped in slumber, or 'thinking o' nothing,' till the loud peal of the three o'clock bell warns them to resume their occupations. CHAPTER XII. Government of New Mexico — The Admin istraiion of Justice — Judicial Corruption — Prejudices against Americans — Partial- ity for the English — xlnecdote of Governor Armijo and a Trapper — Outrage upon an American Physician — Violence suffered by the American Consul and others — Arbitrary Im- positions upon Foreigners — Coniribucion de Gicerra — The Al- caldes and their System — The Fueros — Mode of punishing Delinquents and Criminals— Mexican System of Slavery — Thieves and Thieveries — Outrage upon an American Mer- chant— Gambling nnd Gambling-houses — Game of Monte — Anecdote of a Lady of Fashion — Ckuzo. — Cockpits — Correr el gallo — El Coleo — Fandangoes — Cigar ritos. Prior to the adoption of the Sistema Central in the Mexican republic, the province of New Mexico was under a territorial government. The executive was called Gefe Politico (poli- tical chief), and the Diputacion Provincial very inefficiently supplied the place of a legisla- ture. Under the present system, however, New Mexico being a dej^artment^ the names of these powers have been changed, but their functions remain very nearly the same. The Gohernador (governor) is appointed by the Pre- sident for eight years. The legislative power is nominally vested in ix Junta Departarnental^ a kind of state council, with very circum- 226 JUDICIAL CORRUPTIONS. scribed powers, somewhat analogous to, and certainly not more extensive than, those of a board of aldermen with us. But even tliis shadow of popular representation was 'pro- rogued' by Gov. Armijo soon after his acces- sion to power (five or six years ago), and has never since been convened ; so that its func- tions have been arbitrarily exercised by the governor ever since. The administration of the laws in Northern Mexico constitutes one of the most painful features of her institutions. Justice^ or rather judgments, are a common article of traffic ; and the hapless litigant who has not the means to soften the claws of the alcalde with a ' sil- ver unction,' is almost sure to get severely scratched in the contest, no matter what may be the justice of his cause, or the uprightness of his character. It is easy to perceive, then, that the poor and the humble stand no chance in a judicial contest with the wealthy and con- sequential, whose influence, even apart from their facihties for corrupting the court and suborning witnesses, is sufficient to neutral- ize any amount of plebeian testimony that might be brought against them. The evil consequences arising from mal- administration of justice in New Mexico are most severely felt by foreigners, against whom a strong prejudice prevails throughout the South. Of these, the citizens of the United States are by far the most constant sufferers : an ine^itable result of that sinister feeling with which the ' rival rcpubUc' views the advance- AMERICANS AND ENGLISHMEN. 227 merit and superiority of her more industrious neighbors. It is a notorious fact, that while tlie English are universally treated with comparative consideration and respect, the Americans residing in the southern parts of the repubUc are frequently taunted with the eheminacy of their government and its want o[' decision. So openly has this preference for British subjects been manifested, and so thoroughly conscious have the Americans be- come of the humiliating fact, that when a mercantile firm, consisting of an American and an Englishman, has occasion to present a memorial of any description, or to sue either for an act of flivor or of justice from the na- tion, the apphcation is sure to be made in the name of the latter, knowing it will thus be more likely to conmiand proper attention. Few men, perhaps, have done more to jeopard the interests of American traders, or to bring the American character itself into contempt, than Armijo, the present arbitrary governor of New Mexico. I am happy to say, however, that in the midst of his many oppres- sions, he was once at least obliged to ' knock under' to one of those bold and daring spirits of the Rocky Mountains whom obstacles rather energize than subdue. This was about the year 1828, during Armijo's previous gov- ernorship. A law was then in existence which had been enacted by the general Con- gress prohibiting foreigners from trapping bea- ver in the Mexican territory, under penalty of confiscation, etc. ; but as there were no na- 228 SUBLETTE AND APMIJO. tive trappers in New Mexico, Gov. Baca and his successor (Narbona) thought it expedient to extend hcenses to foreigners, in the name of citizens, upon condition of their taking a certain proportion of Mexicans to learn the art of trapping. In pursuance of this dispo- sition, Gov. Narbona extended a hcense to one Ewing Young, who was accompanied bv a Mr. Sublette, brother of Capt. Wm. Sub- lette, and almost equally celebrated for his mountain adventures. Previous to the re- turn of this party from their trapping expe- dition, Armijo had succeeded Narbona in office, and they were informed that it was his intention to seize their furs. To prevent this, they deposited them at a neighboring tillage, where they were afterwards discover- ed, seized, and confiscated. The furs being damp, they were spread out in the sun before the Guardia, in Santa Fe, when Sublette, percei^dng two packs of beaver which had been his oAvn property, got by honest labor, instantly seized them and carried them away before the eyes of the whole garrison, and concealed both them and his own person in a house opposite. The entire military force was immediately put in requisition, and a general search made for the offender and his prize ; but in vain : indeed, if the truth must be spoken, the troops seemed to have as little desire to find Sublette as the latter had of be- ing found ; for his character was too well known to leave any room for hope that hii capture could be effected Avithout a great dea' ANOTHER OPPRESSION. 229 of trouble. In the meanwhile, Armijo raved, and threatened the Americans for not ferret- ing out their countryman and dehvering him over to justice. FaiUng to produce any im- pression by bhistering, however, he caused a couple of cannons to be pointed at the house where the offender was supposed to be conceal- ed, declaring at the same time that he would batter it down ; but all to no purpose. Mr. Sublette finally conveyed his furs in safety to the frontier, and thence to the United States. The following anecdote affords another il- lustration of Armijo's summary mode of deal- ing with Americans. In the fall of 1840, a gross outrage was committed upon a physi- cian from Massachusetts (said to be a gentle- man of unexceptionable deportment), who was travehing through the country for his health. He had loaned nine hundred dollars to a person of the name of Tayon, who after- wards borrowed the same amount of another foreigner and repaid this debt. The doctor then left for the South, where he intended to pass the winter, being afflicted with a pulmo- nary disease. But the individual who had lent Tayon the money, being informed that he was insolvent, applied to Gov. Armijo for an order to compel the doctor to return, ex- pecting thereby to make him reimburse the money. The order overtook him at the village of Algodones, near forty miles from Santa Fe, where he was at once arrested by the alcalde, and detained some time, ignorant even of the offence for which he was doing penance. 20 230 GLARING OUTRAGES. In the meantime, the American Consul at Santa Fe, having been informed of what had taken place, procured a counter-order from the governor for the release of the prisoner. When the alcalde of Algodones received this document, he determined at once that so ex- traordinary an act of justice should cost the foreigner some trifle. Accordingly, another order was forged on the spot, commanding that he should be taken to the capital — yet a * gentle hint ' was given, that his liberty might be purchased by the payment of two hundred dollars. Being in a land of strangers, among whom he had but little hope of receiving fair play, the doctor resolved to pay the amount de- manded, and fly to Chihuahua, where he would at least be safe from Armijo's clutches. Hav- ing been informed, however, of the fraud prac- tised by the alcalde, before he had proceeded far on his journey, he returned and made an attempt to bring the dehnquent officer to jus- tice, but altogether without success. But perhaps the most glaring outrages upon American citizens were committed in 1841, upon the occasion of the capture of the Tex- an Santa Fe Expedition. In Taos, a poor deaf and dumb U. S. creole Frenchman was beaten to death in open day. In San Miguel, the alcalde, at the head of a mob, entered the store of a Mr. Rowland, whom he robbed of a considerable amount of merchandise. At the same time, the greatest excitement raged in Santa Fe against Americans, whose lives appeared in imminent danger; and a most THE AMERICAN CONSUL. 231 savage attack was made upon our excellent Consul, Manuel Alvarez, Esq., who had al- ways taken an active interest in the welfare of American citizens. A few minutes after the governor had de- parted for San Miguel, to encounter the Tex- ans, a fellow named Martin, his nephew and confidential agent, aided by a band of ferocious sans culottes^ and armed with a large knife, se- cretly entered the house of the Consul, who perceived him in time, however, to avert the blow ; yet he received a severe wound in the face during the scuffle that ensued : the rab- ble running in at the same time, and vocife- rating, " Sdquenlo afuera ! mdtenlo .'" — Drag him out ! kill him ! Mr. Alvarez doubtless owed his preservation partially to the conster- nation with which the failure of their clandes- tine attempt at his life inspired the cowardly ruffians. Instead of being punished for this diabolical act, the principal assassin, on the contrary, was soon after promoted in the army. The outrage did not end here, however; for on the Consul's demanding his passport for the United States, it was refused for nearly a month ; thus detaining him until the cold season had so far advanced, that, of his party (about fifteen in number), two perished from the cold ; and not one arrived without being more or less frost-bitten — some very severely — besides suffering a loss of about fifty ani- mals from the same cause. Although these and other daring outrages have been duly represented to our Govern- 232 CONTIUDUCION DE GUEllRA. ment, it does not appear that any measures of redress have yet been taken. With a view of oppressing our merchants, Gov. Armijohad, as early as 1839, issued a de- cree exempting all the natives from the tax imposed on store-houses, shops, etc., throw- ing the whole burden of impost upon foreign- ers and naturaUzed citizens; a measure clearly and unequivocally at variance with the trea- ties and stipulations entered into between the United States and Mexico. A protest was presented without eifect ; when our Consul, linding all remonsti'ances useless, forwarded a memorial to the American Minister at Mexico, who, although the vital interests of American citizens were at stake, deemed the affair of too little importance, perhaps, and therefore appears to have paid no attention to it. But this system of levying excessive taxes upon foreigners, is by no means an original invention of Gov. Armijo. In 1835, the gov- ernment of Chihuahua having levied a con- trihucion de guerra for raising means to fnake war upon the savages, who were laying waste the surrounding country, foreign merchants, with an equal disregard for their rights and the obligations of treaties, were taxed twenty- five dollars each per month ; while the native merchants, many of whom possessed large haciendas, with thousands of stock, for the especial protection of which these taxes were chiefly imposed, paid only from five to ten dollars each. Remonstrances were presented to the governor, but in vain. In his official THE alcalde's COURT. 233 reply, that functionary declared, " que el go- bierno cree arreglado el reparto de sus respectivas contrihuciones'^ — the government believes your respective contributions in accordance with justice — which concluded the correspond- ence, and the Americans paid their twenty- five dollars per month. The only tribunals of 'justice' in New Mexico are those of the ordinary alcaldes or justices of the peace ; and an appeal from them is carried to the Supreme Court in the department of Chihuahua. The course of htigation is exceedingly simple and summa- ry. The plaintiff makes his verbal complaint or demand before the alcalde, who orders him to summon the defendant, which is done by simply saying, '^ Le llama el alcalde'^ (the al- calde calls you) into his presence, the appli- cant acting thus in the double capacity of constable and complainant The summons is always verbal, and rarely for a future time — instant attendance being expected. Should the defendant refuse to obey this simple man- date (which, by the bye, is a veiy rare occur- rence), the alcalde sends his haston de justiciar his staff of justice, an ordinary walking-cane, distinguished only by a pecuUar black silk tassel. This never fails to enforce comph- ance, for a refusal to attend after being shown the staff, would be construed into a contempt of court, and punished accordingly. The witnesses are sometimes sworn upon a cross cut on the haston de Justicia, or more fre- quently, perhaps, upon a cross formed with 20* 234 FUEKO PRIVILEGES. the finger and thumb. Generally speak- ing, however, the process of examination is gone through without a single oath being ad- ministered ; and in the absence of witnesses, the alcalde often proceeds to sentence upon the simple statements of the contending par- ties. By a species of mutual agreement, the issue of a suit is sometimes referred to honi- hres huenos (arbitrators), which is the nearest approximation that is made to trial by jury. In judicial proceedings, however, but httle, or rather no attention is paid to any code of laws ; in fact, there is scarcely one alcalde in a dozen who knows what a law is, or who ever saw a law-book. Their decisions, when not influ- enced by corrupt agencies, are controlled by the prevailing customs of the country. In the administration of justice, there are three distinct and privileged jurisdictions, known as fueros : the eclesidstico, wliich pro- vides that no member of the clergy, at least of the rank of curate and upwards, shall ever be arraigned before a civil tribunal, but shall be tried by their superiors in the order ; the military which makes a similar provision in favor not only of commissioned officers, but of every common soldier from the ranks ; and the civil or ordinary courts, for all cases in which the defendants are laymen. These fueros have hhherto maintained the ecclesi- astical and military classes in perfect independ- ence of the civil authorities. The civil, in fact, remains in some degree subordinate to the other two fueros ; for it can, under no cir- SENTENCE AND PUNISHMENT. 235 cum stances, have any jurisdiction whatever over them ; while the lay plaintiff, in the pri- vileged tribunals of these, may, if unsuccessful, have judgment entered up against him : a consequence that can never follow the suits of the ecclesiastical or military orders before the civil tribunals. The judgments of the latter, in such cases, would be void. It is no wonder, then, that the cause of freedom in Mexico has made so httle progress. Imprisonment is almost the only sort of punishment resorted to m the North. For debt, petit larceny, highway robbery, and murder, the usual sentence is " A Ici career (to jail), where a person is likely to remain about as long for inability to pay dos reciles, as for the worst of crimes : always pro\ided he has not the means to pacify the offended majesty of the law. I never heard of but one execu- tion for murder in New Mexico, since the de- claration of independence. The most despe- rate and blood-stained criminals escape with impunity, after a few weeks of incarceration, unless the prosecutor happens to be a person of great influence; in which case, the prisoner is detained in the ealabozo at will, even when the offence committed has been of a trivial character. Notwithstanding this laxity in the execution of the laws, there are few murders of any kind commited. In case of debt, as before remarked, the de- linquent is sent to jail — provided the creditor will not accept his services. If he will, how- ever, the debtor becomes nokns volens the 236 SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. servant of the creditor till the debt is satisfied ; and, serving, as he does, at very reduced wa- ges, his expenses for clothing, and other ne- cessaries, but too often retain him in perpetual servitude. This system does not operate, how- ever, upon the higher classes, yet it acts with terrible severity upon the unfortunate poor, whose condition is but little better, if not worse indeed than that of the slaves of the South. They labor for fixed wages, it is true ; but all they can earn is hardly sufficient to keep them in the coarsest clothing and pay their contingent expenses. Men's wages range from two to five dollars a month, and those of women from fifty cents to two dollars ; in payment of which, they rarely receive any money; but instead thereof, articles of ap- parel and other necessaries at the most ex- orbitant prices. The consequence is that the servant soon accumulates a debt which he is unable to pay — his wages being often en- gaged for a year or two in advance. Now, according to the usages, if not the laws of the country, he is bound to serve his master until all arrearages are liquidated ; and is only enabled to eflfect an exchange of masters, by engaging another to pay his debt, to whom he becomes in like manner bound. As I have already remarked, capital crimes and highway robberies are of comparatively rare occurrence in the North, but in smaller dehnquencies, such as pilfering and petty rogueries of every shade and description, the common classes can very successfully com- TRICKS OF ROBBERS. 237 pete witli any other people. Nothing indeed can be left exposed or unguarded without great danger of its being immediately stolen. No husbandman would think of leaving his axe or his hoe, or anything else of the slight- est value, lying out over night. Empty wa- gons are often pillaged of every movable piece of iron, and even the wheels have been car- ried away. Pieces of merchandise are fre- quently purloined from the shelves, when they happen to be in reach. In Chihuahua, goods have actually been snatched from the counter while being exposed to the inspection of a pretended purchaser. I once had a trick of this kind played upon me by a couple of boys, who made their escape through a crowd of spectators with their booty exposed. Li vain I cried " Agarren a los ladrones /" (catch the thieves !) not a single individual moved to apprehend them. I then proffered the goods stolen, to any person who might suc- ceed in bringing the rogues to me, but to no purpose. In fact there seems to exist a great deal of repugnance, even among the better classes, to apprehending thieves; as if the mere act of informing against them was con- sidered dishonorable. I heard a very respecta- ble caballero once remark that he had seen a man purloin certam articles of merchandise, but he could not be induced to give up his name ; observing, " O, I can't think of expos- ing the poor fellow !" The impunity with which delinquencies of this description are every day committed is 238 A PARTIAL JUDGE. perhaps in some degree, the consequence of those severe enactments, such as the Leyesdelas Indias (the laws of the Indies), which rendered many tiiefts and robberies punishable with death. The magistracy contracted the habit of frequently winking at crime, rather than resort to the barbarous expedients prescribed by the letter of the law. The utmost that can be gained now by public prosecution, is the recovery of the stolen property, if that be any- where to be found, and occasionally a short period of imprisonment for the culprit. This is more particularly the case when the prose- cutor happens to be a foreigner ; while on the other hand, if he be the party accused, he is hkely to be subjected to very severe treat- ment. A remarkable circumstance of this kind occurred in Chihuahua in the year 1835. One of our most respectable IVIissouri mer- chants had bought a mule of a stranger, but the animal was soon after claimed by a third person, who proved that it had been stolen from him. The Missourian would have been perfectly satisfied to lose the mide, and end the matter there ; but to the surprise of all, he was directly summoned before an alcalde, and forthwith sentenced to jail : the partial judge having labored to fix the theft upon the innocent purchaser, while the real culprit, who was a native, was permitted to go at large. The love of gambling also deserves to be noticed as a distinguishing propensity of these people. Indeed it may well be said, without any undue stretch of imagination, that shop- THE MONTE BAXK. 239 lifting, pocket-picking, and other elegant pas- times of the same kindred, are the legitimate oftspring, especially among the lower classes, of that passion for gaming, which in Mexico more than anywhere else — to use Madame Calderon's language — "is impregnated with the constitution — in man, woman, and child." It prevails in the lowly hut, as well as in the ghttering saloon ; nor is the sanctity of the gown nor the dignit}^ of station sufficient proof against the fascinations of this exciting vice. No one considers it a degradation to be seen frequenting a monte hank : the gov- ernor himself and his lady, the grave magis- trate and the priestly dignity, the gay caballero and the titled seiiora may all be seen staking their doubloons upon the turn of a card ; while the humbler ranchero, the hired domes- tic and the ragged pauper, all press with equal avidity to test their fortune at the same shrine. There are other games at cards practised among these people, depending more upon skill ; but that of el monte, being one exclu- sively of chance, seems to possess an all-ab- sorbing attraction, difficult to be conceived by the uninitiated spectator. The following will not only serve to show the hght in which gambling is held by all classes of society, but to illustrate the purifying ef- fects of wealth upon character. Some twelve or fifteen years ago there lived (or rather roamed) in Taos a certain female of very loose habits, known as La Tules. Finding it difficult to obtain the means of Uving in that 240 GAME OF CHUZA. district, she finally extended her wanderings to the capital. She there became a constant attendant on one of those pandemoniums Avhere the favorite game of monte was dealt pro bono publico. Fortune, at first, did not seem inclined to smile upon her efforts, and for some years she spent her days in lowliness and misery. At last her luck turned, as gamblers would say, and on one occasion she left the bank with a spoil of several hundred dollars ! This enabled her to open a bank of her own, and being favored by a continuous run of good fortune, she gradually rose higher and higher in the scale of affluence, until she found herself in possession of a very hand- some fortune. In 1843, she sent to the United States some ten thousand dollars to be invest- ed in goods. She still continues her favorite ' amusement,' being now considered the most expert 'monte dealer' in all Santa Fe. She is openly received in the first circles of socie- ty : I doubt, in truth, whether there is to. be found in the city a lady of more fashiona- ble reputation than this same Tules, now known as Sefiora Dofia Gertrudes Barcelo. Among the multitude of games which seem to constitute the real business of fife in New Mexico, that of chuza evidently presents the most attractions to ladies; and they generally lay very heavy Avagers upon the result. It is played with httle balls, and bears some faint resemblance to what is called roulette. Bull- baiting and cock-fighting, about Avhich so much has been said by every traveller in Mex- CORRER EL GALLO. 241 ico, are also very popular ' amusei. ents' in the North, and generally lead to the same excesses and the same results as gaming. The cock- pit rarely fails to be crowded on Sundays and other feast days; on which occasions the church, the ball-room, the gambling-house, and the cock-pit look like so many opposition estab- lishments ; for nothing is more common than to see people going from one place to another by alternate fits, just as devotional feehng or love of pleasure happens to prompt them. One of the most attractive sports of the rancheros and the peasantry, and that which, more than any other, calls for the exercise of skill and dexterity, is that called corre?' el gallOy practised generally on St. John's day. A com- mon cock or hen is tied by the feet to some swinging limb of a tree, so as to be barely within the reach of a man on horseback : or the fowl is buried alive in a small pit in the ground leaving only the head above the sur- face. In either case, the racers, passing at full speed, grapple the head of the fowl, which being well greased, generally slips out of their fingers. As soon as some one, more dextrous than the rest, has succeeded in tear- ing it loose, he claps spurs to his steed, and endeavors to escape with the prize. He is hotly pursued, however, by the whole sport- ing crew, and the first who overtakes him tries to get possession of the fowl, when a strife ensues, during which the poor chicken is torn into atoms. Should the holder of the trophy be able to outstrip his pursuers, he car- 21 242 COLEO AND FANDANGOS. ries it to a crowd of fair spectators and pre- sents it to his mistress, who takes it to the fandango which iTsiially follows, as a testi- mony of the prowess of her lover. Among the vaqueros, and even among per- sons of distinction, el coleo (tailing) is a much nobler exercise than the preceding, £ind is also generally reserved for days of festi\ity. For tliis sport the most imtractable ox or bull is turned loose upon a level common, when all the parties who propose to join in the amuse- ment, being already mounted, start off in pur- suit of him. The most successful rider, as soon as he gets near enough to the bull, seizes him by the tail, and with a sudden manoeuvre, whirls him topsy-turvy upon the plain — to the no httle risk of breaking his own neck, should his horse stumble or be tripped by the legs of the falling bull. Respecting fandangos^ I will observe that this term, as it is used in New Mexico, is never applied to any particular dance, but is the usual designation for those ordinary assem- blies where dancing and frolicking are car- ried on ; haile (or ball) being generally appUed to those of a higher grade. The former es- pecially are very frequent ; for nothing is more general, throughout the country, and with all classes than dancing. From the gravest priest to the buffoon — from the rich- est nabob to the beggar — from the governor to the ranchero — from the soberest matron to the flippant belle — from the grandest srnora to the cocinera — all partake of this exhilarat- LADY-SMOKLVG. 243 ing amusement. To judge from the quantity of tuned instruments which sahite the ear ahiiost every night m the Aveek, one would suppose that a perpetual carnival prevailed everywhere. The musical instruments used at the hailes smd fandangos are usually the fid- dle and bandolin. or guitarra, accompanied in some villages by the toyiibc or httle Indian drum. The musicians occasionally acquire considerable proficiency in the use of these instruments. But what most oddly greets, and really outrages most Protestant ears, is the accompaniment of divdne service with the very same instruments, and often with the same tunes. Of all the petty vices practised by the New Mexicans, the vicio inocente of smoking among ladies, is the most intolerable; and yet it is a habit of which the loveUest and the most refined equally partake. The puro or cigarro^ is seen in the mouths of all : it is handed round in the parlor, and introduced at the dinner table — even in the ball-room it is presented to ladies as regularly as any * The puro is a common cigar of pure tobacco ; but the term cigarro or cigarrito is applied to those made of cut tobacco rolled up in a strip of paper or corn-husk. The latter are by far in tlie most general use in New Mexico, even among the men, and are those only smoked by the females. In this province cigarros are rarely sold in the shops, being generally manufactured by every one just as they are needed. Their expertness in this 'accomplish- ment' is often remarkable. The mounted vaquero ^vill take out his guagito (his little tobacco-flask), his packet of hojas (or pre- pared husks), and his flint, steel, etc., — make his cigarrito, strike fire and commence smoking in a minute's time — all while at full speed: and the next minute will perhaps lazo the wildest bull without intemipting his smoke. 244 INEBRIETY. other species of ' refreshment ;' and in the dance tiie seaorita may often be seen whirl- ing round with a lighted cigar rito in her mouth. The belles of the Southern cities are very frequently furnished with tenazitas de oro (little golden tongs), to hold the cigar with, so as to prevent their delicate fingers from being polluted either with the stain or scent of to- bacco ; forgetting at the same time its disa- greeable effects upon the lips and breath. Notwithstanding their numerous vices, how- ever, I should do the New Mexicans the just- ice to say that they are but little addicted to inebriety and its attendant dissipations. Yet this doubtlessly results to a considerable de- gree from the dearness of spirituous hquors, which virtually places them beyond the reach of the lower classes. CHAPTER XIII. Militaiy Hierarchy of Mexico — Religious Superstitions— Le- gend of Nuestra SeHora de Guadalupe — A profane version of the Story — A curious Plan for manufacturing Water — Saints and Images — Processions — How to make it Rain — The Sacred Host — Fanaticism and Murder — Honors paid to a Bishop — Servility to Priests — Attendance at Public Wor- ship— New Mexicans in Church — The Vesper Bells — Passion Week and the Ceremcnies pertaining thereto — Ridiculous Penitencia — Whitewashing of Criminals — Matrimonial Con- nexions and Mode of Contracting them — Restrictions upon Lovers — Onerous Fees paid for Marriages and Burials — An- ecdote of a Ranchero — Ditto of a Servant and a Widow, illus- trative of Priestly Extortion — Modes of Burial, and Burial Ground of the Heretics, The Mexicans seem the legitimate de- scendants of the subjects of ' His Most Catho- lic Majesty ;' for the Romish faith is not only the religion estabhshed by law, but the only one tolerated by the constitution : a system of repubhcan liberty wholly incomprehensible to the independent and tolerant spirits of the United States. Foreigners only of other creeds, in accordance with treaty stipulations, can worship privately within their own houses. The Mexicans, indeed, talk of a ' union of Church and State :' they should rather say a ' union of Church and Army ;' for, as has 21* 246 xMARVELLOUS APPARITIONS. already been shown, the civil authority is so nearly merged in the miUtary and the ecclesi- astical, that the government, if not a military hierarchy, is something so near akin that it is difficult to draw the distinction. As Mr. jNIayer very appropriately remarks, you are warned of the double dominion of the army and the church " by the constant sound of the drum and the bell, which ring in your ears from morn to midnight, and drown the sounds of industry and labor." In the variety and grossness of popular su- perstitions, Northern Mexico can probably compete with any civihzed country in the world. Others may have their extravagant traditions, their fanatical prejudices, their priestly impostures, but here the popular creed seems to be the embodiment of as much that is fantastic and improbable in idolatrous wor- ship, as it is possible to clothe in the garb of a christian faith. It would fill volumes to re- late one-half of the wonderful miracles and extraordinary apparitions said to have occurred during and since the conquest of the Indian Pueblos and their conversion to the Romish faith. Their character may be inferred from the following national legend of La MaraviUosa Aparicion de Nuestra SeTiora de. Gimdalupe — anglice, the marvellous apparition of Our La- dy of Guadalupe, — which, in some one of its many traditionary shapes, is generally believ- ed throughout the republic. I have seen some half a dozen written versions of this celebrat- ed tradition, and heard about as many oral NUESTRA SE.NORA DE GUADALUPE. 247 ones ; but no two agree in all the particulars. However, that which has received most cur- rency informs us, that, on the 12th of De- cember, 1581, an Indian called Juan Diego, while passing over the barren hill of Tepeya- cac (about a league northward from the city of Mexico), in quest of medicinal herbs, had his attention suddenly arrested by the fra- grance of flowers, and the sound of delightful music ; and on looking up, he saw an angelic sort of figure directly before him. Being ter- rified he attempted to flee ; but the apparition calhng to him by name, " Juan Diego," said she, " go tell the bishop to have me a place of worship erected on this very spot." The Indian replied that he could not return, as he was seeking remedios for a dying relative. But the figure bade him to do as command- ed, and have no further care about liis rela- tive— that he was then well. Juan Diego went to the city, but being unable to procure an audience from the bishop, he concluded he had been acting under a delusion, and again set off for his remedios. Upon ascending the same hiU, however, the apparition again ac- costed him, and hearing his excuse, upbraided him for his want of faith and energy ; and said, " Tell the bishop that it is Guadalupe, the Vir- gin Mary, come to dwell amongst and protect the Mexicans, who sends thee." The Indian, returning again to the city, forced his way into the presence of the bishop, who, hke a good sensible man, received the messenger with jeers, and treated him as a maniac ; 248 THE MIllACULOUS IMAGE. telling him finally to bring some sign, which, if really the Mother of God, his directress could readily furnish. The perplexed Indian left the bishop's pre- sence resolved to avoid further molestation from his spiritual acquaintance, by taking another route ; yet, when near the place of his first meeting, he again encountered the apparition, who, hearing the result of his mis- sion, ordered him to cUmb a naked rock hard by, and collect a bouquet of flowers which he would find growing there. Juan Diego, albeit without faith, obeyed, when, to his sur- prise he found the flowers referred to, and brought them to the Virgin, who, throwing them into his tilma, commanded him to carry them to the bishop ; saying, " When he sees these he will beheve, as he well knows that flowers do not bloom at this season, much less upon that barren rock." The humble messenger now with more courage sought the bishop's presence, and threw out the bloom- ing credentials of his mission before him ; when lo ! to the astonishment of all, and to the entire con\iction of his Senoria ihtstrisima^ the perfect image of the apparition appeared imprinted on the inside of the tilma.^ The reverend Prelate now fully acknow- ledged the divinity of the picture, and in a * This is a kind of mantle or loose covering worn by the In- dians, which, in the present instance, was made of the coarse fila- ments of a species of maguey, and a little resembled the common coffee sacks. The painting, as it necessarily must be on such a material, is said to be coarse, and represents the Virgin covered with a blue robe bespangled with stare. GUADALUPE MEDALS. 249 conclave of ecclesiastics convened for the pur- pose, he pronounced it the image of La ver- dadera Virgen and protectress of Mexico. A splendid chapel was soon after erected upon the spot designated in the mandate, in which the miraculous painting was deposited, where it is preserved to the present day. In the suburbs of every principal city in the repub- lic, there is now a chapel specially dedicated to Nuestra SeTiora de Guadalupe, where coarse resemblances of the original picture are to be seen. Rough paintings of the same, of various dimensions, are also to be met with in nearly every dwelling, from the palace to the most miserable hovel. The image, with an adapted motto, has also been stamped upon medals, which are swung about the necks of the faithful.^ * The accompanying cut represents both sides of a medal of " Nuestra Se'^ora de Guadalupe de Mexico," of Avhich, as I have been informed, 216,000 were struck at Birmingham in the year 1831, designed for the Mexican market. Similar medals are worn by nearly nine-tenths of the population of Nonhern JNlexico. On one Bide, as will be seen, the Viigin is represented in her star- 250 THE PROFANE STORY. As a further confirmatibn of the miracle, it is also told, that when Juan Diego returned to his home, he found his relative in good health — that he had suddenly risen from the last extremity about the time of the former's meeting with the Virgin. Now comes the profane version of the story, which the skeptical have set afloat, as the most reasonable one ; but against which, in the name of orthodoxy, I feel bound to enter my protest. To the better understand- ing of this ' explanatory tradition,' it may be necessary to premise that the name of Gua- dalupe was already familiar to the Spaniards, the Virgin Mary having, it is said, long before appeared in Spain, under the same title ; on which occasion an order of monks, styled Frailes Guadalupanos, had been instituted. One of these worthy fathers who had been sent as a missionary to Mexico, finding the Indians rather stubborn and unyielding, con- ceived the plan of flattering their national vanity by fabricating a saint suited for the occasion. The Guadalupano had a poor friend who was an excellent painter, to whom he said, one day, " Take this tilma" — presenting him one of the coarsest and most slazv tex- spangled robe, supported by a cherub and the moon under her feet: a design, which, it has been suggested, was most probably drawn from Revelation xii. 1. The date, "A. 1805," is that per- haps of some one of the innumerable miracles, which, according to fame in Mexico, have been wrought by the Virgin Guadalupe. The motto, " Non fecit taliter omni nationi" (She " hath not dealt 60 with any nation") which is fomid on the reverse of the medal, \& extracted from Psalm cxlvii. 20. PAINTING OF THE IMAGE. 251 rure (a sort of manta de guangoche) ; " paste it upon canvass, and paint me thereon the handsomest effigy of Nuestra SefiOra de Gua- dahipe that your fancy can portray." When this was done according to order, and the tilma separated from the canvass, the picture appeared somewhat miraculous. Viewed very closely, it showed exceedingly dim ; but upon receding to some distance, so that the eye could embrace a larger field of the open texture, it appeared quite distinct and beauti- ful. This effect is often alluded to at the pre- sent day, and easily as it might be accounted for upon philosophical principles, I have heard many an ignorant Mexican declare, that la Santismia Ffr^^'/? concealed herself from such as profaned her shrine by a too near approach, and only shone forth in all her brilliancy to those who kept at a respectful distance. But, in conclusion, the story relates, that a suitable damsel being selected and decked out to represent the Virgin, the affair was played off as it has been naF*ated. As regards the miracle of the fresh flowers in December the profanos say, that there was nothing very wonderful about it, as flowers were known to bloom in the lowlands, and only a few leagues from the spot where the affair took place, at all seasons of the year; implying that these had been engrafted upon the rock for the occasion. There are some who go so far as to insinuate that the bishop and other ecclesiastics were privy to the whole affair, and that every precaution had been 252 A WATER MIRACLE. taken to see the Indian who played first fiddle in the matter, provided witli a tiima, similar to the one on Avhich the image of the Virgin was painted, and that this was artfully slipped in the place of the former, which the Indian had dotfed when he chmbed the rock after the flowers. — I have not seen the original por- trait, but most of the copies and imitations I have met with, represent the Virgin with that peculiarly tawny complexion which was pro- bably deemed indispensable to conciliate the prejudices of the aborigines. The reader may reconcile the foregoing dis- crepancies in the best way he can : all that I have to add is, that the apparition having been canonized by the Pope, a belief in it now constitutes as much a part of the reli- gious faith of the Mexicans, as any article of the Apostolic Creed. To judge from the blind and reverential awe in which the Vir- gin Guadalupe is held by the lowly and the ignorant, one would suppose her to be the first person in the Divinity ; for to her their vows are directed, their prayers offered up, and all their confessions made. Among the many traditions implicitly be- Heved in by the people, and which tend to obstruct the advancement of knowledge, there is one equally as amusing and extravagant as the foregoing, which has been gravely re- counted by the present Vicar of New Mexico and ex-delegate to Congress. During the memorable insurrection of 1680, the^ Pueblo of San Felipe was about the only one that HEALING IMAGES. 253 remained faithful to the Spaniards in all the North. It was during that exciting period that the padre of another Pueblo took refuge among them. Being besieged by their neigh- bors and their communication with the wa- ter entirely cut off, they applied for advice to the reverend padre, who l3ade them not de- spair, as he had it in his power to supply them with water. He then began to pray very fer- vently, after which he opened a vein in each of hjs arms, from whence there flowed two such copious streams of water that all fears of being reduced by thirst were completely allayed ! It is a part of the superstitious blindness of these people to believe that eyerj one of their legion of canonized saints possesses the power of performing certain miracles ; and their aid is generally invoked on all occasions of sick- ness and distress. The kindest office, there- fore, that the friends of a sick person can per- form, is to bring forward the image of some of those saints whose heahng powers have been satisfactorily tested. The efficacy of these superstitious remedies will not be diffi- cult to account for, when the powerful influ- ence of the imagination upon disease is taken into consideration. The images of patron saints are never put in such general requisition, however, as in seasons of severe drought. The priests, be- ing generally expert at guessing the approach of a pluvial period, take good care not to make confident promises till they have sub- 22 254 KAIN TROCESSION. stantial reason to anticipate a speedy fulfi]- nient of their prophecies. When the fitting season draws nigh, they carry out the' image of Nuestra Sefiora de Guadahipe, or that of some other favorite saint, and parade about the streets, the fields and the meadows, fol- lowed by all the men, women, and children of the neighborhood, in solemn procession. Should the clouds condescend to vovichsafe a supply of rain within a week or two of this general humihation, no one ever thinks of be- grudging the scores of dollars that have been paid to the priests for bringing about so happy a result. Speaking of processions, I am reminded of another pecuhar custom so prevalent in Mexi- co, that it never fails to attract the attention of strangers. This is the passage of the Sa- cred Host to the residence of persons danger- ously ill, for the purpose of administering to them the Extreme Unction. In New Mexi- co, however, this procession is not attended ^vith so much ostentatious display as it is in the South, the paradise of ecclesiastics, where it is conveyed in a black coach drawn by a pair of black mules, accompanied by armed soldiers and followed by crowds of leperos of all sexes and ages. During the procession of the Host, two church-bells of different tones are kept sounding by alternate strokes. Also the carriage is always preceded by a beJJ-man tinkling a little bell in regular time, to notify all within hearing of its approach^ that they may be prepared to pay it due homage. When THE HOST. 255 this bell is heard, all those that happen to be witliin sight of the procession, though at ever so gTeat a distance, instantly kneel and re- main in that position till it has passed out of sight. On these occasions, if an American happens to be within hearing, he endeavors to avoid the corttge^ by turning the corner of a street or entering a shop or the house of a friend ; for although it may be expedient, and even rational, to conform with the customs and ceremonies of those countries we are so- journing m, very few Protestants would feel disposed to fall on their knees before a coach freighted with frail mortals pretending to re- present the Godhead ! I am sorry to say that non-compliants are frequently insulted and sometimes pelted with stones by the rabble. Even a foreign artisan was once massacred in the Mexican metropolis because he refused to come out of his shop, where he was kneel- ing, and perform the act of genuflexion in the street ! This abject idolatry sometimes takes a still more humihating aspect, and descends to the worship of men in the capacity of rehgious rulers. On the occasion of the Bishop of Durango's visit to Santa Fe in 1833, an event wliich had not taken place for a great many years, the infatuated population hailed his ar- rival with as much devotional enthusiasm as if it had been the second advent of the Mes- siah. Magnificent preparations were made everywhere for his reception : the streets were swept, the roads and bridges on his route re- 256 HOMAGE TO A BISHOP. paired and decorated ; and from every Avin- dow in the city there hung such a profusion of fancy curtains and rich cloths that the imagination was carried back to those glow- ing descriptions of enchanted worlds which one reads of in the fables of necromancers. I must observe, however, that there is a cus- tom in all the towns of Mexico (which it would not be safe to neglect), providing that whenever a religious procession takes place, all the doors and windows facing the street along which it is to pass, shall be decorated with shawls, carpets, or fancy cloths, according to the means and capabilities of the proprie- tor. During the bishop's sojourn in Santa Fe, which, to the great joy of the inhabitants, lasted for several weeks, he never appeared in the streets but that ' all true Catholics ' who were so fortunate as to obtain a gUmpse of his Sen or I a Ilustrisima immediately dropped upon their knees, and never moved from that position till the mitred priest had either vouch- safed his benediction or had disappeared. Even the principal personages of the city would not venture to address him till they had first knelt at his feet and kissed his ' pas- toral ring.' This, however, is only a height- ened picture of what occurs every day in the intercourse between the rancheros and the common padres of the country. The slavish bsequiousness of the lower classes towards these pampered priests is almost incredible. No people are more punctual in their at- tendance upon pubUc worship, or more exact LA ORACION OR VESPERS. 257 ill the performance of the external rites of reUgion, than the New Mexicans. A man would about as soon tliink of venturing in twenty fathoms of water without being able to swim, as of undertaking a journey with- out hearing mass first. These religious exer- cises, however, partake but seldom of the character of true devotion ; for people may be seen chattering or tittering while in the act of crossing themselves, or muttering some formal prayer. Indeed, it is the common re- mark of strangers, that they are wont to wear much graver countenances while dancing at a fandango than during their devotional exer- cises at the foot of the altar. In nothing, however, is their observance of the outward forms of rehgion more remarkable than in their deportment every day towards the close of twilight, when the large bell of the Parro- quia, peals for la oracion, or vespers. All con- versation is instantly suspended — all labor ceases — people of all classes, whether on foot or on horseback, make a sudden halt — even the laden porter, groaning under the weight of an insupportable burden, stops in the midst of his career and stands still. An almost breathless silence reigns throughout the town, disturbed only by the occasional sibilations of the devout multitude : all of which, accom- panied by the vslow heavy peals of a large so- norous bell, afford a scene truly solemn and appropriate. At the exphation of about two minutes the charm is suddenly broken by the clatter of liveher-toned bells ; and a buenas 22* 258 GOOD FRIDAY. tardes (good evening) to those present closes the ceremony : when presto, all is bustle and confusion again — the colloquial chit-chat is resumed — the smith plies upon his anvil with redoubled energy — the clink of the hammer simultaneously resounds in every direction — the wayfarers are again in motion, — both pleasure and business, in short, as- sume their respective sway. Although the CathoUcs have a saint for each day m the year, the number of canon- ized fiestas in which labor is prohibited has been somewhat reduced in Mexico. La Sema- na Santa, or Passion Week, is perhaps the pe- riod when the rehgious feehng, such as it is, is most fully excited: Viernes Santo (Good Friday), especially, is observed with great pomp and splendor. An image of Christ large as life, nailed to a huge wooden cross, is paraded through the streets, in the midst of an immense procession, accompanied by a glittering array of carved images, representing the Virgin Mary, Mary Magdalene, and seve- ral others ; while the most notorious person- ages of antiquity, who figured at that great eraof the World's history, — the centurion with a band of guards, armed with lances, and ap- parelled in the costume supposed to have been worn in those days, — may be seen be- striding splendidly caparisoned horses, in the breathing reality of flesh and blood. Tak- ing it all in all, this spectacle, — the ceremo- nies and manoeuvres which attend its career through the densely crowded and ornament- RIDICULOUS PUNITENCIA. 259 ed streets, — are calculated to produce impres- sions of a most confused description, in which regret and melancholy may be said, to form no inconsiderable share. It has been customary for great malefactors to propitiate Divine forgiveness by a cruel sort of penitenciay which generally takes place dur- ing the Sernana Santa. I once chanced to be in the town of Tome on Good Friday, when my attention was arrested by a man almost naked, bearing, in imitation of Simon, a huge cross upon his shoulders, which, though constructed of the Hghtest wood, must have weighed over a hundred pounds. The long end dragged upon the ground, as we have seen it represented in sacred pictures, and about the middle swung a stone of im- mense dimensions, appended there for the purpose of making the task more laborious. Not far behind foUowed another equally des- titute of clothing, with his whole body wrap- ped in chains and cords, which seemed buried in the muscles, and wliich so cramped and confined him that he was scarcely able to keep pace with the procession. The person who brought up the rear presented a stiJl more disgusting aspect. He walked along with a patient and composed step, while another followed close behind belaboring him lustily with a whip, which he flourished with all the satisfaction of an amateur ; but as the lash was pointed only with a tuft of untwisted sea-grass, its apphcation merely served to keep open the wounds upon the penitent's 260 MAUR1A(JE CONTRACTS. back, which had been scarified, as I was in- formed, with the keen edge of a flint, and was bleeding most profusely. The blood was kept in ' perpetual flow by the stimulating juice of certain herbs, carried by a third p(^r- son, into Avhich the scourger frequently dip ped his lash. Although the actors in this tra- gical farce were completely muffled, yet they were well known to many of the by-standers, one of whom assured me that they were three of the most notorious rascals in the country. By submitting to this species of penance, they annually received complete absolution of their past year's sins, and, thus ' purified,' en- tered afresh on the old career of wickedness and crime. In New Mexico, the institution of marriage changes the legal rights of the pai'ties, but it scarcely affects their moral obhgations. It is usually looked upon as a convenient cloak for irregularities, which society less willingly tole- rates in the fives of unmarried women. Yet when it is considered that the majority of matches are forced and ill-assorted, some idea may be formed of the little incitement that is given to virtue. There are very few parents who would stoop to consult a young lady's wishes before concluding a marriage contract, nor would maidens, generally, ever dream of a matrimonial connection unless proposed first by the father. The lover's proposals are, up- on the same principle, made in writing direct to the parents themselves, and without the least deference to the wishes or incfinations MARRIAGE FEES. 261 of the young lady whose hand is thus sought in marriage. The tender emotions engender- ed between lovers during walks and rambles along the banks of silent streams, are never experienced in this country ; for the sexes are seldom permitted to converse or be together alone. In short, instances have actually oc- curred when the betrothed couple have never seen each other till brought to the altar to be joined in wedlock. Among the humbler classes, there are still more powerful causes calculated to produce irregularity of life ; not the least of which is the enormous fee that must be paid to the cu- rate for tying the matrimonial knot. This system of extortion is carried so far as to amount very frequently to absolute prohibi- tion: for the means of the bridegroom are often insufficient for the exigency of the oc- casion; and the priests seldom consent to join people in wedlock until the money has been secured to them. The curates being with- out control, the marriage rates are some- what irregular, but they usually increase in proportion to the clfkracter of the ceremonies and to the circumstances of the parties. The lowest (about twenty dollars) are adapted to the simplest form, solemnized in church at mass ; but with the excuse of any extra ser- vice and ceremonies, particularly if performed at a private house, the fees are increased often as high as several hundred dollars: I have heard of $500 being paid for a marriage cere- mony. The following communication, wliich 262 A RANCHERO'S COMPLAINT. appeared in a Chihuahua paper under the sig- nature of " Tin Rancher o,^' affords some illus- tration of the grievances of the plebeians in this respect. Literally translated it runs thus : *^ Messrs. Editors of the Noticioso de Chihuahua: " Permit me, through your paper, to say a few words in print, as those of my pen have been unsuccessfully employed with the cura^ of Allende and Jimenez, to whom I apphed the other day for the purpose of ascertaining their legal charge to marry one of my sons. The following simple and concise answer is all that I have been able to elicit from either of these ecclesiastics: — ' The marriage fees are a hundred and nineteen dollars^ I must con- fess that I was completely suffocated when 1 heard this outrageous demand upon my poor purse ; and did I not pride myself on being a true ApostoUc Roman Catholic, and were it not that the charming graces of my intend- ed daughter-in-laAv have so captivated my son that nothing but marriage will satisfy him, I would assuredly advise him to contrive some other arrangement with ^is beloved, which might not be so ruinous to our poor purse ; for reflect that $119 are the life and all of a poor ranchero. If nothing else will do, I shall have to sell my few cows (inis vaquitas) to help my son out of this difficulty." — The * Ranchero' then appeals to the Government to remedy such evils, by imposing some salu- tary restrictions upon the clergy; and con- cludes by saying, " If this is not done, I will BAPTII^MAL AND BL'lllAL FEES. 263 never permit either of my remaining three sons to marry." This article was certainly an effort of bold- ness against the imesthood, which may have cost the poor ' Ranchero' a sentence of ex- communication. Few of his countrymen would venture on a similar act of temerity; and at least nine-tenths profess the most pro- found submission to their religious rulers. Be- ing thus bred to look upon their priests as infallible and holy samples of piety and vir- tue, we should not be so much surprised at the excesses of the ' flock' when a large por- tion of the jmsto^rs, the padres themselves, are foremost in most of the popular \'ices of the country: first at the fandango — first at the gaming table — first at the cock-pit — first at bacchanalian orgies — and by no means last in the contraction of those liaisons which are so emphatically prohibited by their vows. The baptismal and burial fees (neither ol which can be avoided without incurring the charge of heresy) are also a great terror to the candidates for married life. " If I mar- ry," says the poor yeoman, " my family must go unclad to baptize my children ; and if any of them should die, we must starve ourselves to pay the burial charges." The fee for bap- tism, it is true, is not so exorbitant, and in ac- cordance to custom, is often paid by the padrino or sponsor ; but the burial costs are almost equally extravagant with those of mar- riage, varying in proportion to the age and 264 PRIESTLY EXTORTION. circumstances of the deceased. A faithful Mexican servant in my employ at Chihua- hua, once solicited forty dollars to bury his mother. Upon my expressing some surprise at the exorbitancy of the amount, he replied — " That is what the cura demands, sir, and if I do not pay it my poor mother will remain un- buried !" Thus this man was obliged to sacri- fice several months' wages, to pamper the avarice of a vicious and mercenary priest. On another occasion, a poor widow in Santa Fe, begged a httle medicine for her sick child : " Not," said the disconsolate mother, " that the hfe of the babe imports me much, for I know the angelito will go directly to heaven ; but what shall I do to pay the priest for burying it ? He will take my house and all from me — and I shall be turned desolate into the street !" — and so saying, she commenced weeping bitterly. Lidigent parents are thus frequently under the painful necessity of abandoning and dis- owning their deceased children, to avoid the responsibility of burial expenses. To this end the corpse is sometimes deposited in some niche or corner of the church during the night ; and upon being found in the morning, the priest is bound to inter it gratis, unless the parent can be discovered, in which case the latter would be Hable to severe castiga- tion, besides being bound to pay the expenses. Children that have not been baptized are destined, according to the popular faith, to a kind of negative existence in the world of BIHUAL CLSTuMcS. 265 spirits, called Limhu, where they remain forever without either suffering punishment or enjoy- ing happiness. Baptized infants, on the other hand, being considered without shi, are sup- posed to enter at once into the joys of heaven. The deceased child is then denominated an angeUto (a little angel), and is interred with joy and mirth instead of grief and wailing. It is gaudily bedecked with fanciful attire and ornaments of tinsel and flowers; and being placed upon a small bier, it is carried to the grave by four children as gaily dressed as their circumstances will allow ; accompanied by musicians using the instruments and play- ing the tunes of the fandangos; and the little procession is nothing but glee and merri- ment. In New Mexico the loAver classes are very rarel}^, if ever, buried in cofiins : the corpse being simply wrapped in a blanket, or some other covering, and in that rude attire con- signed to its last home. It is truly shock- ing to a sensitive mind to witness the inhu- man treatment to which the remains of the dead are sometimes subjected. There being nothing to indicate the place of the previous graves, it not unfrequently happens that the partially decayed relics of a corpse are dug up and forced to give place to the more recently deceased, when they are again thrown Avith the earth into the new grave with perfect in- difference. The operation of filling up the grave especially, is particularly repulsive ; the earth being pounded down with a large maul, 23 266 INTERMENT OF HERETICS. as fast as it is thrown in upon the unprotect- ed corpse, with a force sufficient to crush a delicate frame to atoms. As the remains of heretics are not permit- ted to pollute either the church-yard or Campo Santo, those Americans who have died in Santa Fe, have been buried on a hill which overlooks the town to the northward. The corpses have sometimes been disinterred and robbed of the shroud in which they were en- veloped ; so that, on a few occasions, it has been deemed expedient to appoint a special watch for the protection of the grave. CHAPTER XIV. The Pueblos — Their Character for Sobriety, Honesty, aod In- dustry— Traditional Descent from Montezuma — Their Lan- guages— Former and present Population — The Pueblo of Pe- cos— Singular Habits of that ill-fated Tribe — Curious Tradi- tion— Montezuma and the Sun — Legend of a Serpent — Reli- gion and Government — Secret Council — Laws and Customs — Excellent Provision^ against Demoralization — Primitive Pas- times of the Pueblos — Their Architecture — Singular Struc- tures of Taos, and other novel Fortifications — Primitive state of the Arts among the Pueblos — Style of Dress, Weapons, etc. — Their Diet — The Chmyave. Allusion has so frequently been made to the aboriginal tribes of New Mexico, known as Los Pueblos, that I think I shall not be tres- passing too much upon the patience of the reader, in glancing rapidly at some of the more conspicuous features of their national habits and character. Although the term Pueblo in Spanish hte- rally means the people, and their towns, it is here specifically apphed to the Christianized In- dians (as well as their villages) — to those abo- rigines whom the Spaniards not only subject- ed to their laws, but to an acknowledgment of the Romish faith, and upon whom they forced baptism and the cross in exchange for 268 PUEBLO INDIANS. the vast possessions of which they robbed them. AJl that was left them was, to each Pueblo a league or two of land situated around their villages, the conquerors reserving to themselves at least ninety-nine hundredths of the whole domain as a requital for their generosity. When these regions were first discovered it appears that the inhabitants lived in com- fortable houses and cultivated the soil, as they have continued to do up to the present time. Indeed, they are now considered , the best hor- ticulturists in the countiy, furnishing most of the fruits and a large portion of the vegetable suppUes that are to be foungi in the markets. They were until very lately the only people in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They also maintain at the present time considerable herds of cattle, horses, etc. They are, in short, a remarkably sober and industrious race, con- spicuous for morality and honesty, and very little given to quarrelling or dissipation, ex- cept when they have had much familiar in- tercourse with the Hispano-Mexican popula- tion. Most of these Pueblos call themselves the descendants of Montezuma, although it would appear that they could only have been made ixquainted with the history of that monarch, by the Spaniards ; as this province is nearly two thousand miles from the ancient kingdom of Mexico. At the time of the conquest they must have been a very powerful people — numbering near a hundred villages, as exist- THEIR LANGUAGES. 269 ing ruins would seem to indicate ; but they are now reduced to about twenty, which are scattered in various parts of the territory. There are but three or four different lan- guages spoken among them, and these, indeed, may be distantly alUed to each other. Those of Taos, Picuris, Isleta, and perhaps some others, speak what has been called the Piro lan- guage. A large portion of the others, \iz., those of San Juan, Santa Clara, Nambe, Po- juaque, Tezuque, and some others, speak Te- gua, having all been originally known by this general name; and those of Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe, and perhaps Sandia, speak the same tongue, though they seem for- merly to have been distinguished as Queres. The numerous tribes that inhabited the high- lands between Rio del Norte and Pecos, as those of Pecos, Cienega, Galisteo, etc., were known anciently as Tagnos, but these are now all extinct ; yet their language is said to be spoken by those of Jemez and others of that section. Those further to the westward^ * Of these, the Pueblo of Zuni has been celebrated for honesty and hospitality. The inhabitants mostly profess the Catholic faith, but have now no curate. They cultivate the soil, manufacture, and possess considerable quantities of stock. Their village is over 150 miles west of the Rio del Norte, on the waters of the Colorado of the West, and is believed to contain between 1000 and 1500 souls. The " seven Pueblos of Moqui" (as they are called) are a similar tribe living a few leagues beyond. They formerly acknowledged the government and religion of the Spaniards, but have long since rejected both, and live in a state of independence and paganism. Their dwellings, however, like those of Zuni, are smiilar to those of the interior Pueblos, and they are equally in- dustrious and agricultural, and still more ingenious in their manu- facturing. The language of the Moquis or Moquinos is said to diflfer but little from that of the Navajoes. 23* 270 POPLXATION AxVD DECAY. are perhaps allied to the Navajoes. Though all these Pueblos speak their native languages among themselves, a great many of them pos- sess a smattering of Spanish, sufficient to car- ry on their mtercourse with the Mexicans. The population of these Pueblos will ave- rage nearly five hundred souls each (though some hardly exceed one hundred), making an aggregate of nine or ten thousand. At the time of the original conquest, at the close of the sixteenth century, they were, as has been mentioned, much, perhaps ten-fold, more nu- merous. Ancient ruins are now to be seen scattered in every quarter of the temtory : of some, entire stone walls are yet standing, while others are nearly or quite obhterated., many of them being now only known by their names w^hich history or tradition has preserved to us. Numbers were no doubt destroyed during the insurrection of 1680, and the petty internal strifes which followed. Several of these Pueblos have been con- verted into Mexican villages, of which that of Pecos is perhaps the most remarkable in- stance. What with the massacres of the second conquest, and the inroads of the Co- manches, they gradually dwindled away, till they found themselves reduced to about a dozen, comprising all ages and sexes ; and it was only a few yearg ago that they abandoned the home of their fathers and joined the Pu- eblo of Jemez. Many curious tales are told of the singlllar habits of this ill-fated tribe, which must no THE PECOS TPIEIR HOLY FIRE. 271 doubt have tended to hasten its utter annihi- lation. A tradition was prevalent among them that Montezuma had kindled a holy fire, and enjoined their ancestors not to suffer it to be extinguished until he should return to deliver his people from the yoke of the Span- iards. In pursuance of these commands, a constant watch had been maintained for ages to prevent the fire from going out; and, as- tradition further informed them, that Monte- zuma would appear with the sun, the deluded Indians were to be seen every clear morning upon the terraced roofs of their houses, atten- tively watching for the appearance of the * king of light,' in hopes of seeing him ' cheek by jowl' with their immortal sovereign. I have myself descended into the famous estu- fas, or subterranean vaults, of which there were several in the village, and have beheld tliis consecrated fire, silently smouldering un- der a covering of ashes, in the basin of a small altar. Some say that they never lost hope in the final coming of Montezuma un- til, by some accident or other, or a lack of a sufficiency of warriors to watch it, the fire became extinguished; and that it was this catastrophe that induced them to abandon their villages, as I have before observed. The task of tending the sacred fire was, it is said, allotted to the warriors. It is further related, that they took the watch by turns for two successive days and nights, without par- taking of either food, water, or sleep ; while some assert, that instead of being restricted to 272 ' THEIR BIG SNAKE. tAvo days, each guard continued with the same unbending severity of purpose until exhaus- tion, and very frequently death, left their places to be filled by others. A large portion of those who came out alive were generally so com- pletely prostrated by the want of repose and the inhalation of carbonic gas that they very soon died ; when, as the vulgar story asseve- rates, their remains were carried to the den of a monstrous serpent, which kept itself in excellent condition by feeding upon these delicacies. This huge snake (invented no doubt by the lovers of the marvellous to account for the constant disappearance of the Indians) was represented as the idol which they wor- shipped, and as subsisting entirely upon the flesh of his devotees : hve infants, however, seemed to suit his palate best. The story of this wonderful serpent was so firmly believed in by many ignorant people, that on one oc- casion I heard an honest ranchero assert, that upon entering the village very early on a win- ter's morning, he saw the huge trail of the reptile in the snow, as large as that of a drag- ging ox. This village, anciently so renowned, lies twenty -five miles eastward of Santa Fe, and near the Rio Pecos, to which it gave name. Even so late as ten years ago, when it con- tained a population of fifty to a hundred souls, the traveller would oftentimes perceive but a solitar}'- Indian, a woman, or a child, standing here and tliere hke so many statues upon the roofs of their houses, with their eyes fixed on PUEBLO GOVERNMENTS. 273 the eastern horizon, or leaning against a wall or a fence, listlessly gazing at the passing stranger; while at other times not a soul was to be seen in any direction, and the sepulchral silence of the place was only disturbed by the occasional barking of a dog, or the cackling of hens. No other Pueblo appears to have adopted this extraordinary superstition: like Pecos, however, they have all held Montezuma to be then perpetual sovereign. It would likewise appear that they all worship the sun ; for it is asserted to be their regular practice to turn the face towards the east at sunrise. They profess the Cathohc faith, however, of which, nevertheless, they cannot be expected to un- derstand anything beyond the formalities ; as but very few of their Mexican neighbors and teachers can boast of more. Although nominally under the jurisdiction of the federal government, as Mexican citi- zens, many features of their ancient customs are still retained, as well in then civil rule as in their reUgion. Each Pueblo is under the control of a cacique or gobernacloi'cillo, chosen from among their own sages, and commis- sioned by the governor of New Mexico. The cacique, when any public business is to be transacted, collects together the principal chiefs of the Pueblo in an estvfa, or cell, usu- ally under ground, and there lays before them the subjects of debate, which are generally set- tled by the opinion of the majority. No Mexi- can is admitted to these councils, nor do the 274 POLICE AND WAR REGULATIONS. subjects of discussion ever transpire beyond tlie precincts of the cavern. The council has also charge of the interior pohce and tranquil- hty of the \illage. One of their regulations is to appoint a secret watch for the purpose of keeping down disorders and vices of every description, and especially to keep an eye over the young men and women of the vil- lage. When any improper intercourse among them is detected, the parties are immediately carried to the councd, and the cacique inti- mates to them that they must be wedded forthwith. Should the girl be of bad charac- ter, and the man, therefore, unwilhng to marry her, they are ordered to keep separate under penalty of the lash. Hence it is, that the fe- males of these Pueblos are almost universally noted for their chastity and modest deport- ment. They also elect a capitan de guerra^ a kind of commander-in-chief of the warriors, whose office it is to defend then homes and their in- terests both in the field and in the councU chamber. Though not ver}^ warlike, these Pueblos are generally vahant, and well skilled in the strategies of Indian warfare ; and al- though they have been branded with cruelty and ferocity, yet they can hardly be said to surpass the Mexicans in this respect : both, in times of war, pay but little regard either to age or sex. I have been told that Avhen the Pueblos return from their belligerent expedi- tions, instead of going directly to their homes, they always visit their council cell first. Here THEIR AMUSEMENTS. 275 they undress, dance, and carouse, frequently for tAvo days in succession before seeing tiieir families. Although the Pueblos are famous for hospi- tality and industry, they still continue in the rudest state of ignorance, having neither books nor schools among them, as none of their languages have been reduced to rules, and very few of their children are ever taught in Spanish. A degree of primitiveness charac- terizes all their amusements, which bear a strong similarity to those of the wilder tribes. Before the New Mexican government had be- come so much impoverished, there was wont to be held in the capital on the 16th of Sep- tember of every year, a national celebration of the declaration of Independence, to which the Pueblos were invited. The warriors and youths of each nation with a propoi-tionate array of dusky damsels would appear oh these occasians, painted and ornamented in accordance with their aboriginal customs, and amuse the inhabitants with all sorts of gro- tesque feats and native dances. Each Pueblo generally had its particular uniform dress and its particular dance. The men of one village would sometimes disguise themselves as elks, with horns on their heads, moving on all- fours, and mimicking the animal they were attempting to personate. Others would ap- pear in the garb of a turkey, with large heavy wiiigs, and strut about in imitation of that bird. But the Pecos tribe, aheady reduced to seven men, always occasioned most diversion. 216 SINGULAR DWELLINGS Their favorite cxi^loit was, each to put on the skin of a buflklo, horns, tail, and alJ, and thus accoutred scamper about through the crowd, to the real or afiected terror of all the ladies present, and to the great dehght of the boys. The Pueblo tillages are generally buih with more regularity than those of the Mexicans, and are constructed of the same materials as were used by tliem in the most primitive ages. Their dwelling-houses, it is true, are not so spacious as those of the Mexicans, containing very seldom more than two or three small apartments upon the ground floor, without any court-yard, but they have generally a much loftier appearance, being frequently two stories high and sometimes more. A very curious feature in these buildings, is, that there is most generally no direct communication between the street and the lower rooms, into which they descend by a trap-door from the upper story, the latter being accessible by means of ladders. Even the entrance to the upper stories is frequently at the roof This style of building seems to have been adopted for security against their marauding neighbors of the wilder tribes, with whom they were often at war. When the family had all been housed at night, the ladder was drawn up, and the inmates were thus shut up in a kind of fortress, which bid defiance to the scanty implements of warfare used by the wild In- dians. Though this was their most usual style of architecture, there still exists a Pueblo of Taos, AND FORTIFICATIONS. 277 composed, tor the most part, of but two edi- fices of very singular structure — one on each side of a creek, and formerly communicating by a bridge. The base-story is a mass of near fom* hundred feet long, a hundred and fifty wide, and divided into numerous apartments, upon which other tiers of rooms are built, one above another, drawn in by regular grades, forming a pyramidal pile of fifty or sixty feet high, and comprising some six or eight stories. The outer rooms only seem to be used for dwelhngs, and are lighted by little windoAVS m the sides, but are entered through trap- doors in the azoteas or roofs. Most of the inner apartments are employed as granaries and store-rooms, but a spacious hall in the centre of the mass, known as the estufa, is re- served for their secret councils. These two buildings afford habitations, as is said, for over six hundred souls. There is likewise an edi- fice in the Pueblo of Picuris of the same class, and some of those of Moqui are also said to be similar. Some of these villages were built upon rocky eminences deemed almost inaccessible : witness for instance the ruins of the ancient Pueblo of San Felipe, which may be seen towering upon the very verge of a precipice several hundred feet high, whose base is washed by the swift current of the Rio del Norte. The still existing Pueblo of Acoma also stands upon an isolated mound whose whole area is occupied by the village, being fringed all around by a precipitous ceja or cHfi! 24 278 NATIVE MANUFACTURES. The inhabitants enter the village by means of ladders, and by steps cut into the solid rock upon which it is based. At the time of the conquest, many of these Pueblos manufactured some singular textures of cotton and other materials ; but with the loss of their Uberty, they seem to have lost most of their arts and ingenuity ; so that the finer specimens of native fabrics are now only to be met with among the Moquis and Nava- joes, who still retain their independence. The Pueblos, however, make some of the ordinary classes of blankets and tilmas,^ as well as other woollen stuffs. They also man- ufacture, according to their aboriginal art, both for their own consumption, and for the purposes of traffic, a species of earthenware not much inferior to the coarse crockery of our common potters. The pots made of this material stand fire remarkably well, and are the universal substitutes for all the pur- poses of cookery, even among the Mexicans, for the iron castings of this country, which are utterly unknown there. Rude as this kind of crockery is, it nevertheless evinces a great deal of skill, considering that it is made entirely without lathe or any kind of machinery. It is often fancifully painted with colored earths and the juice of a plant called guaco, which brightens by burning. They also work a singu- lar kind of wicker-ware, of which some bowls (if they may be so called) are so closely plat- * The tilma of the North is a sort of small but durable blanket, worn by the Indians as a mantle. PUEBLO COSTUMES. 279 ted, that, once swollen by dampness, they serve to hold Uqiiids, and are therefore light and convenient vessels for the purposes of travellers. The dress of many of the Pueblos has be- come assimilated in some respects to that of the common Mexicans ; but by far the great- est portion still retain most of their aboriginal costume. The Taosas and others of the north somewhat resemble the prairie tribes in this respect ; but the Pueblos to the south and west of Santa Fe dress in a different style, which is said to be similar in many re- spects to that of the aboriginal inhabitants of the city of Mexico. The moccasin is the only part of the prairie suit that appears common to them all, and of both sexes. They mostly wear a kind of short breeches and long stock- ings, the use of which they most probably ac- quired from the Spaniards. The saco^ a species of woollen jacket without sleeves, completes their exterior garment ; except during mcle- ment seasons, when they make use of the tilma. Very few of them have hats or head- dress of any kind; and they generally wear their hair long— commonly fashioned into a queuCi wrapped with some colored stuff. The squaws of the northern tribes dress pretty much like those of the Prairies ; but the usual costume of the females of the southern and western Pueblos is a handsome kind of small blanket of dark color, which is drav/n under one arm and tacked over the other shoulder, leaving both arms free and naked. It is gene- 280 PECULIARITIES OF DIET. rally worn with a cotton chemise underneath and is bound about the waist with a girdie. We rarely if ever see a thorough-bred Pueblo woman in Mexican dress. The wea]3ons most in use among the Pue- blos are the bow and arrow, with a long-han- dled lance and occasionally a fusil. The raw- hide shield is also much used, which, though of but little service against fire-arms, serves to ward off the arrow and lance. The aUment of these Indians is, in most respects, similar to that of the Mexicans ; in fact, as has been elsewhere remarked, the lat- ter adopted, with then* utensils numerous items of aboriginal diet. The tortilla, the atole, the 2nnole,^ and many others, together with the use of chile, are from the Indians. Some of the Avilder tribes make a peculiar kind of pinole, by grinding the bean of the mezquite tree into flour, which is then used as that of corn. And besides the tortilla they make another singular kind of bread, if we may so style it, called giiaycwe, a roll of which so much resembles a ' hornets' nest,' that by strangers it is often designated by this title. It is usual ly made of Indian corn prepared and ground as for tortillas, and diluted into a thin paste. * Pinole is in eftect the cold-flour of our hunters. It is the meal of parched Indian corn, prepared for use ])y stirring it up with a Httle cold water. This food seems also to have been of ancient use among; the aborigines of other parts of America, Father Charlevoix, in 1721, says of the savages about tlie northern lakes, that they " reduce [the maize] to Flour which they call Farine froide (cold Flour), and this is the best Provision that can be made for Travellers." THE GUAYAVE. 281 I once happened to enter an Indian hut where a young girl of the family was hsking guat/aves. She was sitthig by a fire, over which a large flat stone was heating, with a crock of pre- pared paste by her side. She thrust her hand into the paste, and then wiped it over the heated stone. What adhered to it was in- stantly baked and peeled off She repeated this process at the rate of a dozen tunes or more per minute. Observing my curiosity, the girl handed me one of the ' sheets,' silent- ly ; for she seemed to understand but her na- tive tongue. I found it pleasant enough to the taste ; though when cold, as I have learned by experience, it is, hke the cold tortilla, rather tough and insipid. They are even thinner than wafers ; and some dozens, being folded in a roll, constitute the laminate composition before mentioned. Being thus preserved, they serve the natives for months upon their journeys. 24^ CHAPTER XV. The ^vild Tribes of New Mexico— Speculative Theories— Clavi gero and the Azieq7ics—F neh\o Benito and other Ruins— Pro- bable Relationship between the Aztequcs and tribes of New Mexico — The several Nations of this Province — Navajocs and Aztcques — Manufactures of the former — Their Agriculture, Religion, etc.— Mexican Cruelty to the Indians and its Conse- quences—Inroads of the Navajoes— Exploits of a Mexican Army— How to make a Hole in a Powder-keg— The Apaches and their Character— Their Food— Novel Mode of settling Disputes — Range of their marauding Excursions — Indian Tralhc and imbecile Treaties — Devastation of the Country Chihuahua Rodomontades — Juan Jose, a celebrated Apache Chief, and his tragical End, etc. — Massacre of Americans in Retaliation — A tragical Episode— Prescubrimiento, discovery. Dia, day. Diablo, devil. Dictador, dictator. Uiligencia, diligence ; stage-coach. Dios, God. JDoblon, doubloon. Domingo, Sunday ; Dominic. Don, Sir, Mr. ; gift. Dona, Madam, Mrs., Miss. Dorado, gilt. Doa, two. Dulce, sweet. Eclesidstico, ecclesiastical. El, the ; he, him. Endguas, sort of petticoat. En junta, in council. Enmendadura, enmendation. Entrada, entrance. Entrerenglonadura, interlineation. Escritor, writer. Escuadron, squadron. Espanol, Spanish ; Spaniard. Estd, is, he is, it is, &.c. Estacado, staked. Estrangero, stranger, foreigner. Estufa, cell ; stove. Factura, invoice. Fandango, dance ; ball. Fiera, wild beast. Fe, faith. Feria, fair. Fierro, iron ; branding-iron, to. Fiesta, feast. Fonda, eating-house, inn. Fraile, Fray, friar. Frijol, bean. Fueros, chartered privileges. Qachupin, Spaniard in America. Gallina, hen. Oallo, cock. Ganado, cattle. Gefe, chief. Gubernador, governor. Gubernadorcillo, petty governor, or chief. Gobiemo, government. Grama, species of grass. Gran, grande, great, large. Grandeza, greatness, grandeur. Oran», grain. Guage, gourd, flask, Guardia, guard, watch ; watch-house Guerra, war. Guia, sort of passport for goods Guisado, cooked, stewed. Guitarra, guitar. Hacienda, estate ; lands ; trAasure. Haciendero, pr(>prietor of an hacienda. Herradura, horse -shoe. Herrcro, blacksmith. Hidalgo, nobleman. Hoja, leaf, husk, &c. Hombre, man. Hombre bueno, arbitrator. Ilustrisijno, most illustrious. Imprenta, printing-office. Inocente, innocent. Jacal, hut, wigwam. Jala, copper coin, penny. Jornada, day's travel ; journey. Juez, judge. Junta, council ; union. La, las, the ; her, it, them. Labor, labor ; field ; mining-pit. Labrador, laborer, farmer. . Ladron, thief, robber. Laguna, lake. Lanzada, thrust with a lance. Lazador, nooser Lazito, little lazo. Lazo, noosing rope. Legua, league. Lepero, vagabond, sans-culotte. Ley, law. Limosnero, beggar. Llano, plain ; prairie ; smooth. Lo, los, the ; it, them, fcc. Lobo, wolf. Madre, mother. Manifiesto, manifest ; bill of goods pro- sented to the custom-house. Manta, covering ; cotton-cloth. Marco, weight of eight ounces ; mark. Mayor, greater, superior. Mayordomo, overseer. Medano, sand-hill. Medio, half; picayune. Menor, less, inferior. Mesa, table ; uble-plain. Meson, inn, hotel. Mestizo, mongrel. Mezquite, a tree, acacia. Mi, mis, my. Militar, military. Monte, a game ; grove ; mount Mora, mulberry. Muerto, dead ; dead man. Mula, mule ; unsalable item. J^Tegro, black ; a black per.?on. jVoria, machine for drawing water ; well. J^'orte, north. J^oticioso, giving information. J^iimero, number. GLOSSARY. 3J3 Ofeial, official ; officer. Ojo, eye ; spring of water. Oro, gold. Padre, father ; priest. Padrino, godfather, sponsor. Paisano, countryman. Paiacio, palace. Panza, paunch- Papa, pope ; potato. Parage, place ; camping-site. Pariente, relative, Ion. Parroquia, parish ; parish church. Pasa, raisin. Paseo, pleasure walk or ride. Paso, pass, passage ; step. Pastor, pastor; shepherd. Patio, court, enclosed yard. Pato, duck. Patriotico, p.itriotic. Pauta, rule, model. Peh, hair. Penitencia, penance, penitence. Perro, dog. Peso, dollar ; weight. Piedra, stone. Pinole, food of parched Indian meal stirred in water. Placer, pleasure ; gold region. Plata, silver. Plaza, square , place ; village. Poquito, ver^• little. Portal, porch, corridor. Prefecto, prefect. Presidio, garrison, fort. Presto, quick, soon. Profano, profane. Fronunciamento, act of making a public declaration. Proyecto, project, plan. publico, public. Pueblo, people ; Catholic Indiamj, &.c. Puerta, door. Puro, pure ; pure tobacco cigar. Ranchera, country woman. Rancheria, village of wild Indians. Ranchcro, inhabitant of a rancho. Rancko, stock-farm. Raspadura, erasure ; rasping. Real, a coin : royal, real, grand. Reboio, muffler, species of scarf. Remedio, remedy, medicine. Rey, king. Rico, rich ; rich man. Rio, river. Sola, hall, parlor. Salina^ salt pond or pit. San, santo, santa, saint, holy Sandia, watermelon. Sanffre, blood. Santisimo, most holy. Saqueo, sack, pillage. Sarape, sort of blanket. Semana, week. Senor, sir, Mr. ; lord. Senora, madam, Mrs.; lady. Senoria, lord.ship. Senoria ilustrisima, title of a bishopi, ttt Sehorita, madam, miss, Mrs., &c. Sierra, ridge of mountains; saw. Siesta., afternoon's sleep. Silla, chair ; saddle. Sistema, system. Sol, sun. Soldado, soldier. Sombrero, hat. Sonoreno, citizen of Sonora. Su, sus, his, her, its, their. Tarde, evening. Tierra, country, land, Tierra .ifuera (in Mexico), the exterior, or country near the coast, &c. Tilma, Indian mantle. Tio, uncle. Todo, all,ever>', whole. Tomillo, screw. Tortilla, thin cake, diminutive of t»rla, cake, loaf. Vado, ford. Valiente, valiant, brave. F'alle, valley, dale. Vaquero, cowherd. Vaquita, diminutive of vaca, cow. Vara, Spanish yard of 33 inches. I Venta, sale ; sale-brand ; inn ; Verdadero, true. Verde, green. I Vicio, vice. I Viernes, Friday. Un, uno, a,one. I Y, e, and. I Yeso, gypsum. Zambo, offspring of the Indian and negro. Zaguan, entry, porch. Zarco, light blue. Zcrra, fox )Sf^r ^ 1 / >■ >^ yU~ '■^^ ^